1 Am I not free? Am I not an apostle? Have I not seen Jesus our Lord? Are you not the result of my work in the Lord? 2 Even though I may not be an apostle to others, surely I am to you! For you are the seal of my apostleship in the Lord.
3 This is my defense to those who sit in judgment on me. 4 Don't we have the right to food and drink? 5 Don't we have the right to take a believing wife along with us, as do the other apostles and the Lord's brothers and Cephas ? 6 Or is it only I and Barnabas who must work for a living?
7 Who serves as a soldier at his own expense? Who plants a vineyard and does not eat of its grapes? Who tends a flock and does not drink of the milk? 8 Do I say this merely from a human point of view? Doesn't the Law say the same thing? 9 For it is written in the Law of Moses: "Do not muzzle an ox while it is treading out the grain." Is it about oxen that God is concerned? 10 Surely he says this for us, doesn't he? Yes, this was written for us, because when the plowman plows and the thresher threshes, they ought to do so in the hope of sharing in the harvest. 11 If we have sown spiritual seed among you, is it too much if we reap a material harvest from you? 12 If others have this right of support from you, shouldn't we have it all the more? 13 But we did not use this right. On the contrary, we put up with anything rather than hinder the gospel of Christ. Don't you know that those who work in the temple get their food from the temple, and those who serve at the altar share in what is offered on the altar? 14 In the same way, the Lord has commanded that those who preach the gospel should receive their living from the gospel.
15 But I have not used any of these rights. And I am not writing this in the hope that you will do such things for me. I would rather die than have anyone deprive me of this boast. 16 Yet when I preach the gospel, I cannot boast, for I am compelled to preach. Woe to me if I do not preach the gospel! 17 If I preach voluntarily, I have a reward; if not voluntarily, I am simply discharging the trust committed to me. 18 What then is my reward? Just this: that in preaching the gospel I may offer it free of charge, and so not make use of my rights in preaching it.
19 Though I am free and belong to no man, I make myself a slave to everyone, to win as many as possible. 20 To the Jews I became like a Jew, to win the Jews. To those under the law I became like one under the law (though I myself am not under the law), so as to win those under the law. 21 To those not having the law I became like one not having the law (though I am not free from God's law but am under Christ's law), so as to win those not having the law. 22 To the weak I became weak, to win the weak. I have become all things to all men so that by all possible means I might save some. 23 I do all this for the sake of the gospel, that I may share in its blessings.
24 Do you not know that in a race all the runners run, but only one gets the prize? Run in such a way as to get the prize. 25 Everyone who competes in the games goes into strict training. They do it to get a crown that will not last; but we do it to get a crown that will last forever. 26 Therefore I do not run like a man running aimlessly; I do not fight like a man beating the air. 27 No, I beat my body and make it my slave so that after I have preached to others, I myself will not be disqualified for the prize.
A Man for All Seasons
1 Corinthians 9:16-23
Sermon
by Donald Charles Lacy
The enigma of human relationships and how that relates to the living God is all about us. It always has been and likely will be. This is precisely what Saint Paul lifts up before us. We would like for all of this to be greatly simplified but it never is and so we continue to seek to live the Christian life as best we know how.
The history of the church is saturated with just what the apostle puts before us. In a way we are caught between two worlds and we have no choice. We live as well we can and hope for heaven. Sometimes our difficulties emerge because we fail to realize God is the God of both of them. The world may be corrupt and fallen but he has not abdicated his throne!
Our freedom, like Paul's, is one of countless dimensions and allows us to relate to precious people in ways we can hardly imagine. This is a privilege and a powerful dynamic, I dare say, many do not understand in the slightest degree. While the gospel is not for boasting, it is for proclamation and we must not fail to do so!
In a sense he is God's "secret weapon" in that he is able to stand with an unfulfilled Judaism and a promising religion evolving from it called Christianity. Perhaps no one in the ancient church was as well qualified and equipped. History bears this out in a remarkable fashion.
Focus
We are to be resilient for the sake of Christ.
Body
1. There are good politics and bad politics.
Politics — in the general sense — is inescapable in this life. To relate to other human beings, sooner or later, invariably becomes political. Every pastor of a local church, for example, is a politician! Does that cast doubt on the integrity of his/her leadership? I certainly hope not. As pastor and people live and work together, we know that management of time, talents, and money must take place. To think otherwise is unrealistic. To act otherwise is most likely to court disaster. Political science is an esteemed field of study, but the practical side of it takes it not only out of academia but out of the basic understanding of those connected to governmental processes.
To cast off concerns and issues as just being politics is to assume a negative aspect that is often not there. For example, every church and/or denomination has a polity. Simply stated, how else do we expect to function in this imperfect world? We can accuse others of playing politics, including Paul, but does that mean we are free and clear in our own less-than-ideal bailiwicks? This state of affairs has always been with us, regardless if we operated by episcopal, congregational, or presbyterial models. To get things done, even in the life of the churches, we frequently have to play politics in the highest and best sense of the term. This can be construed as being negative and below what Christ expects. However, do we really want to do his bidding?
Resiliency is not an option in our walk with others, yes, even in our churches. Survival in this sometimes obviously sinful world means to get the best answer or decision by the grace of God. Must we feel guilty because of this? Must we hang our heads in shame because we have failed to live up to the ideal? Frankly, and without reservation, I do not think so! Good politics means above all — sincerely calling upon the Father for guidance and letting the chips fall where they fall. We cannot flounder in a briar patch just because we refuse to make of it the best it can be under the circ*mstances. Of course, all veteran pastors and lay people deep down know this, often with a certain painful joy.
As our man for all seasons weaves his way through the necessary means of winning others, we experience a genius at work. All is done for the sake of the gospel and winning others to the cause of Christ. Perhaps it is seen as a method for him and not for us. Let us not be naive! The political machinations of this world are with us and that means in the honest to goodness lives of the people called Christians. But politics can be good, which can mean sacrificing our brilliance for the betterment of all involved. But, dear friends, never be a secularized politician, which is always self-seeking and devoid of the undergirding of prayer. Always look out for the spiritual interests of others and always bathe your means and ends in humble and sincere prayer. Otherwise, we could become an anathema!
2. We are called to be adjustable in the best sense of the word.
At first, our point may sound like we must be amenable to being tossed to-and-fro by others. Nothing could be further from the truth! For in the best sense none of us has all of the answers to anything or anyone. Think about all of the answers we don't even have about ourselves. In the United Methodist system of appointments — some would add disappointments — adjustments continually have to be made. The moving of one pastor generally means, at least, two others are moving as well. This involves negotiation with large amounts of patience by all concerned. My experience is that district superintendents really do attempt to make good appointments.
Anyone, lay or clergy, unable to adjust to new pastors and people are in serious trouble. This is true, regardless of the polity. Our needs sometimes simply have to go unmet for awhile. But this should never discourage us. Why? Because from every situation into which we are put, we can learn something valuable. That one truth is frequently the key to maturing in the faith for all of us. So, give thanks and be adjustable under the working of the Holy Spirit that blows wherever it chooses. What we are and become is for the sake of Christ and his one, holy, catholic, and apostolic church. Our walk with the Lord is sooner or later a learning experience. Stretching out to others and making the necessary adjustments should be — in time — a highly positive experience. Our spiritual muscles are always in need of growth!
One direction is not being promoted or recommended and that is what is popularly known as "going with the flow." There are times that we must stand our ground. This is especially true as we come into contact with those who are not interested in the church or may even be an enemy. If we are going with the flow, we must be as certain as possible such movement has the blessing of God and is being directed by the Holy Spirit. Disciples of Christ are exactly that. They have no other to worship and follow. The enemy, the devil, also has ways of putting us in places and positions that require adjustments fraught with serious — perhaps damning — consequences. Remember your childlikeness before the Father!
Conforming in our lives is both obvious and subtle. This is why changes in the life of congregations are to be made above board. For the pastor to slip one over on someone is no cause for jubilation. In fact, it may be the cause of much aggravation. To arrange or rearrange something for the good of the whole church, where adjustments are necessitated, calls for open discussion and a generous spirit. You may very well say such an approach is merely common sense and, yes, we do things that way. Don't be too sure! When we are in a hurry to meet a goal, we may cut some corners. Those empowered with responsibility and authority, lay and clergy, are to be keenly sensitive. This is not to imply everyone needs to know the number of paper clips in the secretary's desk on a given day in order to trust her.
3. To stretch in different directions in the Holy Spirit benefits all.
I am a great believer in stretching with the Holy Spirit as presence and guidance. That is not said in a way to become an annoyance or to become aggressive. It is to suggest we move forward in the faith by moving into new experiences. The progressive people tend to be continually exploring and seeking new opportunities for doing good. Those who remain stagnant seem always to be in the same places, unwilling to stretch into areas of promise. The attitude is much like the farmer, who was offered a new parcel of land. He was firm in saying, "I know what is here but I don't know what is over there." He said that in the face of the fact the parcel was adjacent to his!
Stretching assumes resiliency and that may very well be why some are so hesitant and reluctant. But if we are to imitate Paul, we, too, must become men and women of all seasons for the benefit of others. It can become a dull ordeal to live in a place that has twelve months of spring or summer or winter or fall. In Indiana, we never have to face that problem because we have, at least, four seasons and once in a while it seems like a dozen or more! Likewise, our churches and constituencies can be more or less suffocated by those who cannot seem to move from point A to B. If both pastor and lay leadership fall into this category, of what use are they to bringing the gospel to those pleading for an open spirit?
Try to put yourself in the place of Paul and all that was facing him. He was surrounded by powers who were disinterested in his message and — in some instances — threatened by it. Yet, it was his responsibility to be among them stretching here and there to present the gospel of his blessed Lord. He is even willing to become weak in order that he might win them. Except before the Lord, it must have been quite a task for him to become weak for the purpose of trying to win others. As some of his writings indicate, he was surrounded on every side by those who wanted to compromise or destroy his message. There were some who even sought to obliterate the message of Christ by killing all who faithfully followed him, and we hold back because its either too hot or too cold outside!
The many-sided Christian is the one in today's world who is most effective. That does not mean we compromise or water down our gift from the Lord. While our anchor must be safe and secure, that does not preclude moving in waters — deep or shallow — to influence others for Christ and the church. There are those who would view this as a fragmented and therefore unacceptable approach to presenting the gospel. Paul did not give up the gospel he was trying to promote! We don't need to do that, either. Ideally, we are strong enough in the faith, as we move about, to provide a certain spiritual aroma that causes others to want what we have. The more we can relate to them in their patterns of living, the more apt we are to be successful in their conversion.
4. Rigidity is sometimes a means to stunt the spiritual growth of others.
Old First Church sat on the corner of High and Elm for so many years — rigidly, as the community viewed it — that it had to be torn down before it fell down! It didn't have to be that way. New life seemed to come and go but it could never stay long enough to make the essential changes. So, those longing to have more of the Lord's blessings mostly passed through. It was as though the Holy Spirit kept on grieving until finally it refuses to grieve any longer. It was sad and depressing, but did God take care of those who wanted to grow? Indeed, he did! They went elsewhere and found those who were open to change that Christ might be more fully glorified.
Are conservatives more rigid than liberals? That is not a simple question and there is no simple answer. We live in a world, the churches included, where name-calling is common place and frozen thought is typical. Both sides have their agendas. Some are liberals along certain lines and conservative along others. Liberals often picture conservatives as those "religious right" people who are so closed-minded that they have no clear view of what's happening in the world. Conservatives tend to measure liberals by their wayward morality and failure to interpret the constitution in a proper manner. Entire books have been written on this topic. The definition of terms and spins put on key words and ideas are there to see for the keen observer.
Is contemporary worship in its many forms rigid? A cry may be going up, of course, that has to be answered in the negative. In fact, contemporary worship is to avoid rigidity in worship. I must confess to those proponents that is not automatically the case. I
am reminded, years ago, of the church we attended when I was a child, which prided itself on never using printed orders of service because they didn't want to get in the way of the Holy Spirit. Leaders mentioned with frequency how those formal churches shut out God by their insistence on following a printed order. Years later, in retrospect, I recalled how in our little church everything moved orderly and there was little deviation but, of course, we had no bulletins. Any form of worship can become rigid and do the very thing it says it doesn't!
All in all, we are dependent both corporately and individually on being obedient to the Holy Spirit. This was Saint Paul's weapon. In whatever state he found himself he could be content because his resilient way of life in the Spirit was continually conquering evil that abounded. All is done for the sake of Christ. Can we do as well? Probably not but we can try in the strength that is promised and given to us. We are guilty of underestimating the power of our salvation and thereby stunt the growth of others. We sheepishly say — even emphasize — we can't do this or that. Our rigidity is held like some prize that requires constant vigil! In the meantime, events and happenings march on. Some people enter this world and others leave. Someone has need of your assistance.
Summary And Conclusion
The obligation of the apostle to proclaim the gospel is so deeply rooted he senses God will not hold him guiltless for refusing this call. His freedom and slave status are a paradox. In a way, it defies words to delineate it. Yet, towering in our New Testament is this remarkably unique man, who provides a witness for Christ and his church that never goes away. Perhaps our faith shall never again see such a positively resilient person going about doing the work of the Lord. His strength and spirit provide a model for us. We may discover ourselves far from this in practice. Nevertheless, the model is there and beckons us to come and learn from one of the geniuses of the faith.
Can we be too idealistic? Does the text suggest veering away from the purity of the gospel and making provision for an odious compromise? Of course, the answers must be yours. Humbly, I admit there may not be any crystal-clear answers. That only gently reminds me we are invariably living and ministering in an environment that contains mystery. A strictly rational approach to our salvation has always been filled with limitations. We have always, at one time or another, needed to take a leap of faith. So, dearest Paul, we thank you for your insights that enable us to have hope in the conversion of a world, sinful and in desperate need of Christ. We also thank you for the hope that is engendered and gives us a look — imperfect and cloudy that it be — of our real home in heaven. We promise to work on in our little ways for now.
CSS Publishing Company, Inc., Sermons on the Second Reading: Sermons for Sundays in Advent, Christmas, and Epiphany, Paul’s Pastoral Passages of Promise, by Donald Charles Lacy
Paulillustrates from his own life the principle that freedom should be limited by love. Some of the Corinthians apparently doubt the legitimacy of Paul’s apostleship because he doesn’t charge a fee like other traveling religious teachers. But this would put him in the debt of the wealthy members, something he wants to avoid. In 9:1–12, Paul describes his rights as an apostle, including his right to charge for his ministry. In 9:1…
The Baker Bible Handbook by , Baker Publishing Group, 2016
1 Am I not free? Am I not an apostle? Have I not seen Jesus our Lord? Are you not the result of my work in the Lord? 2 Even though I may not be an apostle to others, surely I am to you! For you are the seal of my apostleship in the Lord.
3 This is my defense to those who sit in judgment on me. 4 Don't we have the right to food and drink? 5 Don't we have the right to take a believing wife along with us, as do the other apostles and the Lord's brothers and Cephas ? 6 Or is it only I and Barnabas who must work for a living?
7 Who serves as a soldier at his own expense? Who plants a vineyard and does not eat of its grapes? Who tends a flock and does not drink of the milk? 8 Do I say this merely from a human point of view? Doesn't the Law say the same thing? 9 For it is written in the Law of Moses: "Do not muzzle an ox while it is treading out the grain." Is it about oxen that God is concerned? 10 Surely he says this for us, doesn't he? Yes, this was written for us, because when the plowman plows and the thresher threshes, they ought to do so in the hope of sharing in the harvest. 11 If we have sown spiritual seed among you, is it too much if we reap a material harvest from you? 12 If others have this right of support from you, shouldn't we have it all the more? 13 But we did not use this right. On the contrary, we put up with anything rather than hinder the gospel of Christ. Don't you know that those who work in the temple get their food from the temple, and those who serve at the altar share in what is offered on the altar? 14 In the same way, the Lord has commanded that those who preach the gospel should receive their living from the gospel.
15 But I have not used any of these rights. And I am not writing this in the hope that you will do such things for me. I would rather die than have anyone deprive me of this boast. 16 Yet when I preach the gospel, I cannot boast, for I am compelled to preach. Woe to me if I do not preach the gospel! 17 If I preach voluntarily, I have a reward; if not voluntarily, I am simply discharging the trust committed to me. 18 What then is my reward? Just this: that in preaching the gospel I may offer it free of charge, and so not make use of my rights in preaching it.
19 Though I am free and belong to no man, I make myself a slave to everyone, to win as many as possible. 20 To the Jews I became like a Jew, to win the Jews. To those under the law I became like one under the law (though I myself am not under the law), so as to win those under the law. 21 To those not having the law I became like one not having the law (though I am not free from God's law but am under Christ's law), so as to win those not having the law. 22 To the weak I became weak, to win the weak. I have become all things to all men so that by all possible means I might save some. 23 I do all this for the sake of the gospel, that I may share in its blessings.
24 Do you not know that in a race all the runners run, but only one gets the prize? Run in such a way as to get the prize. 25 Everyone who competes in the games goes into strict training. They do it to get a crown that will not last; but we do it to get a crown that will last forever. 26 Therefore I do not run like a man running aimlessly; I do not fight like a man beating the air. 27 No, I beat my body and make it my slave so that after I have preached to others, I myself will not be disqualified for the prize.
The mention of restraint prompts Paul to recall that some at Corinth have begun to interpret his reserve as an indication that he is not free to act, as they presume an apostle would, without reference to the beliefs of others. The rhetorical questions he poses in response are not so much concerned with his defense as they are with the fact that this false supposition may cause the Corinthians to neglect his advice (9:1–27). So he must reestablish his apostolic authority through reference to his experience of having seen the risen Lord and to the results of his initial mission, which brought the Corinthian church into existence through the preaching of the gospel. Thus, though outsiders may question his status, Paul expects his own to remember that their life in Christ is the continuing seal of its authenticity.
But does not a true apostle ask his converts to provide him with food and drink and the financial support to enable him to travel with a “believing wife” (9:4–5)? Do not the “other apostles and the Lord’s brothers and Cephas” request such things from those whom they serve (9:6)? Indeed they do, and so, too, can Paul, who now illustrates the legitimacy of this right by noting that a soldier has a recognized right to serve at the expense of others, that those who plant crops or tend livestock have a recognized right to share in the produce, and that this right of support is recognized not only in the sphere of human affairs but also in the law of Moses, which speaks (in Deut. 25:4) about the right of an ox that treads grain to do so without a muzzle, that he might eat as he works.
These last words Paul takes (employing a traditional rabbinic method; cf. Rom. 5:9–10, 15, 17) to refer just as much if not more to the reward deserved by himself and others like him (9:8–10). Confirmation is provided by the observation that those who have plowed or threshed the grain are also entitled to possess a “hope of sharing in the harvest.” Thus Paul and the others who have “sown spiritual seed” among the Christians at Corinth are also entitled to share in the harvest of their ministry through the provision of their continuing material needs (9:11–12).
But Paul has indeed, as they know, made no use of this right. Yet this is not, as his words have shown, because he is not entitled to do so. Rather, it is because he has decided to avoid any hindrance to the reception of the gospel of Christ. For despite the right of “those who preach the gospel” to “receive their living from the gospel” (9:14), which is analogous to the right of those who work “in the temple” and serve at the altar to “share in what is offered on the altar” (9:13), Paul has chosen not to make use of this or any of his rights, and he is not corresponding with the Corinthians for the purpose of requesting them. He has elected instead to make his boast in a ministry that disavows any dependence on another except the one who compels him to preach. Thus it is an almost involuntary obedience to God’s call, rather than a voluntary and carefully planned decision to take up a self-supporting career, that stands behind Paul’s attempt to “discharg[e] the trust committed to [him]” (9:17; see also 1Cor. 4:1–2). And the reward he receives for such service is precisely the ability to make good on the terms of his boast, to preach the gospel free of charge.
But given independence from all, Paul has freely subjugated himself again, not to their support but to their way of life, in order to win them to faith. Though no longer bound by the notion of the law as a covenant enabling maintenance of the righteousness necessary for fellowship with God, Paul is nonetheless willing to follow many of the customs that are indifferent to one justified by faith (see also Rom. 3:21–22; Acts 18:18; 21:26) when to do so means an opportunity to gain entrance for the gospel. Conversely, among those for whom the law was no guide, Paul is willing, to the extent permitted to him by “Christ’s law” (Mark 12:28–34; Luke 10:25–37; Gal. 6:2), to loose himself from divine law as a point of reference if this leads to the fulfillment of the gospel’s objective. And so, at length, his reasons now plain, Paul repeats his readiness to abide by the standards of the weak, or even to become all things to all people if, in this way, it becomes possible for him to bring about their continuing allegiance to the saving gospel of Jesus Christ. For Paul, as their apostle, also shares in the blessing of their entrance into a growing faith (9:23; see also Col. 2:5).
A last illustration allows Paul to compare his restraint with that of a runner who gives up much in “strict training” to attempt to gain the winner’s “crown” in “the games” (9:24–25). Paul does not renounce his rights to no purpose, like a halfhearted runner running aimlessly, or a casual boxer who is always punching the air. Rather, like the serious athlete, he beats back his physical needs until they conform with the priorities of his Christian ministry, lest after proclaiming to others Jesus’s call to abandon all and follow him, Paul himself should be found seeking to retain some personal prerogative and so be “disqualified for the prize” (9:27; see also Phil. 3:13–16).
The figure of the casual athlete allows Paul to make a transition from himself (9:1–27) to those at Corinth who have taken a casual attitude to their behavior with respect to food dedicated to idols (8:10–12). Their exercise of freedom without restraint, exemplified by a casual acceptance of invitations to dine in pagan temples, endangers both them and the weak if it fails to take seriously the influence of evil behind idolatry (chap. 10).
The Baker Illustrated Bible Commentary by Gary M. Burge, Baker Publishing Group, 2016
Big Idea: Personal rights must be put aside when they hinder an effective witness to unbelievers, or if they endanger the faith of immature believers. Even theological arguments that disclose certain behaviors as immaterial to the Christian faith become irrelevant in light of the greater assignment to imitate Christ.
Understanding the Text
The transition from chapter 8 seems quite abrupt. Is Paul taking a ninety-degree turn from a question about participation in Corinthian parties (eating meat) to his rights as an apostle to receive monetary compensation for his work as an evangelist? Probably not! The thread that binds the two sections together is personal rights (exousia; e.g., 8:9 and 9:4–6). Paul continues his discussion of rights by underscoring that he himself has every right to command and require just about anything from the Corinthians. He is an apostle, uniquely called by Christ, and he is the agent Christ has used for their salvation. If they want to speak of rights, he is their spiritual patron, and they are his spiritual clients (9:2; cf. Philem. 19b). They owe him!
Interpretive Insights
9:1 Am I not free? Picking up the claim of the “strong” from chapter 8, Paul states that if that is true of them, it is even more true of him (2Cor. 11:23). In terms of social freedom (not being a slave, or a mere tool of a master), he belongs to no one; he is a Roman citizen (Acts 25:10–12, 21, 25; 26:32). In terms of spiritual freedom, he is a freedman in Christ, even one called to be an apostle. If the strong claim their rights on the basis of freedom, Paul has more reason to do so—yet he does not use his freedom for personal benefit (9:19).
Am I not an apostle? Some scholars have suggested this rhetorical question is Paul’s defense against those who questioned his apostleship. However, if the Corinthians had questioned his apostleship, his following defense of special rights would have been wasted on his audience. It would seem strange if his major defense of his apostleship was the waiving of his rights as an apostle. It seems more likely that this reminder of his rights was met with full affirmation. The sting of his emphasis, then, was that although he had all kinds of rights, he gladly gave them all up for the sake of the gospel (9:23). His rhetorical question is simply another way of, once again, telling the Corinthians, “Imitate me” (4:16; 11:1).
Are you not the result of my work in the Lord? Paul is careful not to claim the Corinthians are his church or to suggest that he is the cause of their salvation. Rather, Corinth is God’s field (3:9), and the existence of a Christ community in Corinth has resulted from Paul’s faithfulness as God’s field worker (3:6).
9:2 Even though I may not be an apostle to others, surely I am to you! “Others” likely refers to nonbelieving Corinthians. The statement is not defensive (as Gal. 1:6–7; 5:10; Rom. 3:8) and thus does not imply that a group inside the Corinthian church, or a Christ community in a different city, has rejected Paul’s authority as an apostle. Rather, he says, “If nonbelievers do not recognize I am a messenger of Christ, certainly you do.”1
you are the seal of my apostleship. A seal is a stamp that proves authenticity or genuineness. The Corinthians recognize Paul’s rights as an apostle because their own existence as Christ followers demonstrates his apostleship (2Cor. 3:3; 10:13–15).
9:3 This is my defense. In the Greek “this” (haut?) concludes the sentence rather than beginning it. Paul does not suggest that what he just said was a defense. To the contrary, what follows becomes his explanation or argument (apologia; NIV: “defense”) against the “strong” when they question why he defends the “weak.” Verses 1 and 2 function as a reminder that gives the basis for what he is about to argue in the following verses.
9:4–7 Paul’s list of rights uses the case in point as the springboard for a larger discussion of the principle involved. The rhetorical questions in verses 4–5 can be answered only in the affirmative by those toward whom his argument is directed. Surely he has the right to participate in dinner parties and various meals (cf. 6:12).2
9:5 the right to take a believing wife along with us. Given Paul’s previous discussion, this cannot refer to his own wife and must therefore be an example of how Paul would have the right to ask the church to supply the needs for both himself and a wife. “Believing wife” is literally “a sister wife”; although “sister” (adelph?) refers to a female believer, the reference cannot be to a female believer who traveled with Paul. As Collins points out, “In the Mediterranean world a woman who traveled with a man would enjoy his protection but if she were not his wife she would have been considered a prostitute.”3 Although Paul’s rhetoric here is designed to highlight his rights, it also gives very early evidence of a pattern of Christian couples traveling together to spread the gospel.
as do the other apostles and the Lord’s brothers and Cephas. “Other apostles” can refer to “the Twelve” (15:5), to Paul’s co-workers (Phil. 2:25; Rom. 16:7), or to other unspecified evangelists (cf. 15:7; 2Cor. 11:5; some are false apostles [2Cor. 11:13]). Whom he specifically has in mind cannot be determined with certainty. The Lord’s brother James and Cephas are singled out because they are recognized by the Corinthian believers. Peter’s marriage is well known and mentioned in the Synoptic Gospels (Matt. 8:14–15; Mark 1:29–31; Luke 4:38–39).4
9:6 Or is it only I and Barnabas. The strained relationship that developed between Paul and Barnabas after the first missionary journey apparently had been healed (Acts 15:36–41). Although Paul did not bring Barnabas on his so-called second missionary journey, Barnabas must have been known among the Corinthians and recognized for approaching ministry and work in a way similar to Paul (1Thess. 2:9). In a culture where landowners often belonged to the privileged societal class, Barnabas’s willingness and need to work after (because?) he had given his land to the church would not have gone unnoticed (Acts 4:36–37). Paul, like a good rabbi, had learned a skill that sustained him while teaching (Acts 18:3).
9:7 Who serves as a soldier ... plants a vineyard ... tends a flock and does not drink the milk? To bring his point home, Paul utilizes three “that’s obvious” illustrations posed as rhetorical questions with a given affirmative answer. Soldiers do not supply their own food while serving;[5] those planting a vineyard clearly eat of its fruit (Deut. 20:6); those shepherding a flock of sheep drink of the milk the sheep produce. The three images are all well known from the Hebrew biblical texts and underscore the basic and natural relationship between a worker and the work. Paul does not argue in favor of compensation for hire (as if a vinedresser got paid in grapes or a shepherd in buckets of milk) but brings home his point that as an apostle who has fought for the Corinthians, planted them as a vineyard in God’s kingdom, and shepherded them as sheep in God’s flock, he has certain evident rights.
9:8–12a Do I say this merely on human authority? Reiterating that he is not trying to simply make a rhetorical argument, as was so common among the sophist street-philosophers of Corinth, Paul points to the Torah to give foundation for his claim. Still not attempting to persuade doubting Corinthians of his rights, Paul uses texts from the Hebrew Bible (Deut. 25:4) to remind his audience that his rights are rooted in Scripture (“Doesn’t the Law say the same thing?” [9:8]). Since the Corinthians agree, his later argument, that he willingly gives up rights that are obviously his, will strike with even stronger force.
Do not muzzle an ox while it is treading out the grain. The quote from Deuteronomy 25:4 sets the stage for Paul to give a typical rabbinical qal wahomer (from lesser to greater) argument.6 Oxen, the lesser matter, are not the real concern of the text; rather, God’s command gives direction to his people, the greater matter.7 Paul neither attempts a wild-eyed allegorical exposition nor tries to pick a fight with animal lovers.8 He simply applies a fully accepted method of interpretation to demonstrate his point.9 When God gives guidelines for the threshing floor, it brings hope to those plowing, sowing, and threshing that they will share in the crop. Since Paul has plowed, sowed, and brought a harvest to God’s threshing floor in Corinth, he has the divine right to benefit from it. In fact, if other apostles have come through Corinth and have rights in this harvest, Paul has more.
9:12b we did not use this right. In 7:21 Paul encouraged slaves to “take advantage” (chraomai; NIV: “do so”) of an opportunity to become free. Here he refuses to “use” (chraomai) his own rights to do the same. He is a slave of Christ and has no desire to take advantage of an opportunity to be set free from that. Rather, he is willing to “put up with” or “endure”10the burden in order not to hinder or hold back the progress of the gospel (10:33). This, again, reminds the Corinthians of Paul’s imitation of Christ (and consequently their need to imitate him [11:1]), who also gave up his rights for the sake of the gospel (2Cor. 8:9; Phil. 2:7).
Theological Insights
In Christian thinking, God’s community trumps individual rights. As is clear throughout Scripture, the action of the individual impacts the whole (e.g., Josh. 7; cf. Josh. 6:25).
Teaching the Text
1. If one thing stands out in this chapter, it is the issue of personal rights of individual Christians. Paul’s theological discussion of meat may seem rather irrelevant to most modern Christians; his point, however, remains as relevant as ever. A large variety of issues facing contemporary Christians raise the same theological question that faced the Corinthians. If, for example, participation in a certain setting arguably is harmless to a person’s Christian confession of Jesus as Lord, does this automatically justify such participation? Paul’s balance gives good direction: (1)He does not condemn those whose actions are being questioned. (2)He highlights the greater principle of forgoing personal rights in the effort to imitate Christ. Paul’s concern is that the “strong” Christians do not cause the “weak” Christians to lose faith. He is not concerned that the strong Christians may feel offended by the weak Christians. To the strong he says, “Your rights are irrelevant—your greater commission is to imitate the Christ who gave up his rights in order to make salvation possible for others.”
2. Paul’s focus is the community of Christ followers. His emphasis on forgoing personal rights centers on every Christian’s responsibility for the whole community of faith. In Paul’s thinking, all questions of rights are communal. The task of Christ’s community is to exemplify Christ. That is done by taking care of the weakest members. Stronger (and more mature) Christians should see it as their task to strengthen the faith of weaker Christians. In effect, Paul dismantles Christian elitism and eliminates “worldly” distinctions. The “strong” were often the wealthy and well educated—the “weak” the poor and uneducated. Christ calls those in his community to rethink their relationship to each other and to realign their relationships to reflect his gospel. Paul’s teaching on rights, then, speaks as much to issues of wealth and privilege, race and gender, as it does to narrower questions of behavior in specific issues (e.g., teetotalism). The Christian community must stand in radical contrast to the broader Corinthian community in its care for the weak.
Illustrating the Text
As a Christ follower, you have the right to remain silent ... about your rights.
Television: We have all watched crime shows in which a person is read his or her Miranda rights; that is, he or she is “mirandized.” If we were mirandizing a newly convicted and converted sinner in the ways of grace in God’s kingdom, the script would be a little different: “Child, you have the right to remain silent from now on about your rights. You gave them all up when Christ bought you with his blood, and you forfeited any claim you thought you had on your person, your possessions, and your life. You are not your own, but belong body and soul, in life and in death, to him. If the Lord of the universe gave up all of his rights for a sinner like you, let’s have no more quibbling from you about yours; you have already been given that which you had no right to expect in order to nullify the damnation you were fully entitled to receive.”
Christian community is meant to be “one for all, and all for one.”
Literature: The Three Musketeers, by Alexandre Dumas. In this swashbuckling adventure, three friends famously pledge to be “one for all, and all for one” in their fellowship. The idea behind this motto is that the full loyalty and strength of each individual is at the disposal of the others and that, conversely, the collective power of the fellowship is available to each individual member, such that battles and adversities affecting one member will be met with the resources and ingenuity of all. In the same way, Christian community is meant to be a situation where the individual’s gifts benefit the whole body and vice versa.
Personal Stories: Interview a short-term-mission team about the group dynamics on their trip. Often, in a setting like this, a sense of community and commonality is established in a way not often experienced by people in Western culture. Ask members of the team to share stories about how the ups and downs of the trip brought them together and how they experienced a sense of commonality and “having each other’s backs” in the work they did, the challenges they faced, and the kingdom impact they made.
Financial Support and Freedom to Preach the Gospel
Big Idea: One must be careful to avoid situations that can force limitations upon one’s freedom to preach the gospel. One’s own personal rights that would stand in the way of preaching the gospel must be disregarded.
Understanding the Text
Paul’s rights extend to receiving financial help from the Corinthians. He could easily have claimed their monetary support, but he has abstained even from this benefit. For the sake of the gospel, he is more than willing to give up any rights for the greater purpose of leading new people into the Christ community and of strengthening the faith of those who are already there (9:22–23). After all, just as they are, he is ultimately responsible to God—of whom they are clients through Christ (9:24–27).
Interpretive Insights
9:13–14 those who serve in the temple ... In the same way, the Lord has commanded. Almost as if he has just thought of another argument, Paul adds two more examples to his list. First, he refers to the cultic practices of Corinth. The priests handling the sacred things (ta hiera), including the meat discussed in chapter 8, rightfully eat from the sacrifices and benefit from the offerings. Second, in an impressive display of rhetorical skill, Paul tops his list with a command of Jesus. The Corinthians who stubbornly hold on to their rights ought to consider Paul, who—beyond all the examples he has just given, including common Corinthian practices and scriptural commands—even has instruction from Jesus himself about his rights; but he has given it all up (Matt. 10:10; Luke 10:7).1
9:15 I have not used any of these rights. Paul’s point is not dissatisfaction, or a semiconcealed attempt to request assistance from the Corinthians. On the contrary, it is the very refusal of his rights that sets him free to preach the gospel.
I would rather die than allow anyone to deprive me of this boast. This somewhat-awkward-sounding phrase is rooted directly in the soil of patron-client relationships. Opening with a perfect-tense dismissal of his rights, Paul highlights the ongoing reality of the decision he made (“I am not writing this in the hope that you will do such things for me”; cf. 2Cor. 11:9–10). The Corinthians boast of their rights; if Paul has any boast, it is in the disclaimer of his rights. Put differently, Paul’s boast is a nonboast. In a society where the right relationships and associations determined social and financial progress, the ability to claim (boast about) rights was a double-edged sword, a privilege that came with strings. The rights that free and wealthier Corinthians could claim were secured by a patron (ultimately Caesar in Rome), who in turn could demand loyalty (see “Grace and Patronage” in the introduction). Paul owes nothing to anyone in Corinth. Since his only patron is Christ, he is bound only by his loyalty to Christ (1:31; 3:21; 2Cor. 10:17).2That loyalty forces him to give up his personal rights when they potentially conceal Christ’s significance.
9:16–18 I cannot boast, since I am compelled to preach. Paul’s boast is a nonboast because he is without choice in the matter of his rights. His phraseology functions simultaneously as an explanation for his refusal of their financial support and as an indictment of the Corinthians who have claimed freedom. Christ drove him (lit., “necessity is imposed upon me”) to preach the gospel; something else drove them to claim their rights. Paul’s “woe to me” may be his way of translating a Hebrew prophetic exclamation (e.g., Isa. 3:11; 5:11; 6:5; etc.),3 but in the Corinthian situation it probably illustrates the severity of a servant’s disloyalty toward a master. If Paul had been a free man, hired to preach the gospel, or if he had done so as a favor to a friend, he would have had a reward.4 But, as it is, Paul’s relationship to Christ is not one of equal status; rather, Paul is a household manager (oikonomos) entrusted with a task—a task normally given to a highly trusted slave (Luke 12:42–48).5 Such a slave would have a high degree of freedom and trust from the master, but woe unto the slave if the task was not performed as charged and the trust was broken.6
What then is my reward? With extraordinary finesse, Paul draws his argument to a conclusion that exposes how the thinking of “strong” Corinthians is upside down from what it should be. It is exactly because Paul has given up his personal rights that he is free to make use of rights that benefit the gospel. That is his reward! Because he is preaching for free, without claiming his rights as the spiritual patron of the Corinthian Christ followers, he has the right, and is set free, to preach the gospel to everyone.
9:19–23 Though I am free and belong to no one, I have made myself a slave. Paul summarizes the paradox of a Christ follower’s lifestyle in yet another “imitate me” statement that gives content to his charge in 9:24. Verses 19–23 set the stage for his exhortation in verse 24, illustrating how his life exemplifies what theirs should be. Instead of focusing on their rights, they should “run in such a way as to get the prize” (9:24). The specific examples function as personal illustrations designed to highlight the goal. They are not designed to highlight Paul’s achievements. He simply covers the fields of tension among the Corinthians—the areas that generated conflict between the “strong” who claimed rights and the “weak” whose faith was hurt or hindered because of those claims.
To the Jews I became like a Jew, to win the Jews. All the common English translations translate the Greek Ioudaios as “Jew.” As a mere rhetorical contrast to Gentiles, such a translation seems natural. However, Paul obviously was a Jew, even a law-abiding one (Phil. 3:4–6). Emphasizing that he “became” a Jew to the Jews seems somewhat odd and suggests that Paul was less than a Jew to other groups. It is possible, therefore, that Paul refers to Judeans as an ethnic group distinguished from, for example, Galileans in their clothing and traditions.7
Traditionally, verses 20–21 are read as a simple contrast between Jews and Gentiles. On the surface it seems Paul argues in favor of a somewhat duplicitous approach to evangelism. When among Jews (“those under the law”), he keeps the law; when among Gentiles (“those not having the law”), he feels free to break the law. Part of the difficulty is Paul’s wordplay in verse 21, which proves rather difficult to express in an English translation. He uses anomos four times, referring to those outside Jewish law, and ennomos (“under the law”) once, referring to Christ’s law. In regular Greek usage, the terms anomos and ennomos respectively mean “illegal” and “legal.” Paul’s parenthetical statement in 7:21 then highlights that his eagerness to be “legal” in relation to Christ’s demands does not make him “illegal” in relation to God’s. Paul does not argue in favor of duplicity (the end justifies the means), but he underscores how his personal rights and preferences must be put aside for the sake of evangelism (7:22).
I do all this for the sake of the gospel. Paul’s motivation and purpose do not waver. He is driven by one vision and one love—that he may become a participant of the gospel. Verse 23b expresses his longing through a purpose statement (introduced by hina): “that I may share in its blessings,” or “that I may become its participant” (lit., “co-sharer”). The reference is the gospel, not those he wins for it. To participate in the gospel means to participate in the life of Jesus, sharing in the suffering necessary to bring salvation to the weak and those outside God’s community. This means bringing together the socially dependent and the socially superior, restoring love between alienated ethnic groups, and establishing a Christian community, where suffering for the sake of others finds direction and motivation from the death and resurrection of Jesus.
9:24–27 Everyone who competes in the games ... to get a crown. A final motivational illustration puts Paul’s point in the clearest light. Because the prominent Isthmian Games were celebrated biannually in Corinth, athletic illustrations function as explanations of “how things are.” That an athlete competes to win a prize proves self-evident;8 that Christians should focus on accomplishing their goal to become like Christ should prove just as self-evident. Paying the price by giving up all kinds of normal pleasures and rights, athletes compete for a prize that fades (a wreath made of pine or celery).9 Christians should therefore be more than willing to give up their rights to receive a prize that never fades (imperishable, everlasting; 15:52; cf. 1Tim. 1:17; 1Pet. 1:4; 5:4; Rev. 4:10).
so that ... I myself will not be disqualified.10 This statement seems rather difficult to understand if approached from the perspective of Christian doctrines like the security of the believer. Paul’s point, however, is not doctrinal in that sense. Rather, he stays within the illustration and speaks about the danger of not aiming to become Christlike—as an athlete who loses and therefore has trained in vain. The illustration still retains its soteriological force, though. The possibility looms that the faith of the weak vanishes. Just as an athlete cannot rest until the race is over, a Christian must work out his or her salvation with fear and trembling (Phil. 2:12). The Christian life is a process of being re-formed into the image of Christ. The active exercise of Christian life and faith keeps a person fit for the race and will result in a crown of victory that will be fully revealed at the second coming of Christ.
Teaching the Text
1. Paul’s eagerness to underscore his independence of financial support from the Corinthian church must be understood from the background of their patron-client awareness. His emphasis on the rights of a laborer to receive support makes untenable any claim that gospel workers must work without financial support. Giving and receiving financial support creates a special relationship between the giver and the recipient. Negatively, this means that any support that comes with strings, or that puts the gospel worker in debt to certain individuals within the church, must be refused. No messenger of Christ’s gospel can afford to preach, or be seen as preaching, on behalf of anyone but Christ. Thus Paul has refused any support from Corinth. Positively, this means that when a church supports those teaching and sharing the gospel among them, a relationship is forged that makes the gospel workers and the church members participants in each other’s lives and ministries. Thus Paul accepts support from the Philippians.
2. From the perspective of the church, Paul’s teaching here points to the need for vigilance in ensuring that their financial support strengthens the kingdom of God. Positively, salaries and other financial support must come with encouragement for the beneficiaries to use the support in a way that honors Christ and expands his kingdom. Negatively, it is a reminder to the church or wealthy individuals in the church that they violate their trust from Christ if they try to use their financial support to “make” the beneficiaries minister only to their kind, in their way, or according to their interest.
3. The phrase “become all things to all people” (9:22) is easily misunderstood to mean that Paul suggests Christians should take a chameleon approach to behavior for the sake of evangelism. Actually, Paul’s aim is directly contrary to this. The context is his willingness to give up personal rights, to not accept things that run contrary to the gospel or behave in a way that may devastate the faith of weaker Christians. Otherwise, Paul could simply have affirmed the “strong” Christians’ rights to eat idol meat and argued on their behalf that they were merely trying to “become all things to all people.” Paul’s argument, however, runs the other way; he does not suggest a willingness to compromise Christian convictions. We may summarize his statements like this: “To win the poor, I am willing to live like the poor; to win those with ethnic traditions different from mine, I am willing to change my preferences; to win those who have less freedom than I do, I am willing to give up my Christian freedom.”
Illustrating the Text
The gospel transforms our identity and our values.
Business: The profit and loss statement, or P&L, is one of the key measures of a business’s health. It summarizes income and expenses over a given period of time to provide a measure of success and financial well-being. Individuals likewise review bank statements to see how income lines up with expenses. And for both individuals and businesses, the effect on the balance sheet is a key deciding factor in evaluating actions. But in Philippians 4:7 Paul declares, “Whatever were gains to me I now consider loss,” a fundamental reversal of values with regard to salvation that also permeates all of life. The gospel transforms our identity, from being self-focused to being Christ-focused. This same transformation occurs in the way we calculate value and purpose. We no longer live for ourselves but instead live to the Lord and for his purposes. In giving of our rights and our resources we discover and communicate that God’s work is more important than our personal desires. Our motivation for giving is not personal benefit or earthly profit but kingdom benefit and gospel progress. Our personal benefit is a byproduct resulting from the gratitude that stems from our recognition that God has made us stewards of his household. We find our joy in how God has used us for his purposes.
We are called to set aside our rights and preferences to reach people who may be unlike ourselves.
Contrasting Concept: Worship wars and other battles over preferences in a church can turn this concept upside down. When the strong become offended by the spiritual needs of the weak, intolerance and inflexibility can carry the day. Rather than becoming all things to all people in order that by all means we might reach some, we become one thing to our people that by no means shall we be disturbed. The sincere worship of selfless servants acting as winsome ambassadors for the God who seeks and saves lost people is quickly endangered in this climate.
Biography: Father Damien. Father Damien was a Belgian Roman Catholic priest who took on a mission to an isolated colony of exiles on the island of Molokai, Hawaii, from 1873 to 1889. He was the first priest to volunteer to live and minister there among the 816 persons suffering from leprosy (also known as Hansen’s disease), a choice that all knew could be a death sentence. He did not just minister as a priest; he dug graves, dressed wounds, built a church and coffins, and even researched the disease, inventing new surgeries and treatments to ease the suffering of the people. In explaining his actions to his brother via letter, he alluded to this passage of Scripture, saying, “I make myself a leper with the lepers to gain all to Jesus Christ.” This was not only true spiritually, but it was a prophetic statement as well. Damien contracted leprosy and began to suffer along with the people he came to serve. Leprosy took his life, and he died on Molokai in April 1889 at age forty-nine. He has been made a saint of the Roman Catholic Church and is known as a martyr of charity. His legacy shows the power of a willingness to sacrifice in order to reach others with the love of Christ and the power of his gospel.
Teaching the Text by Preben Vang, Baker Publishing Group, 2016
Direct Matches
Altars were places of sacrifice and worship constructed of various materials. They could be either temporary or permanent. Some altars were in the open air; others were set apart in a holy place. They could symbolize either God’s presence and protection or false worship that would lead to God’s judgment.
A name given by the apostles to Joseph, a Levite from Cyprus, missionary companion of Paul, and cousin of John Mark (Acts 4:36). Luke interprets the name “Barnabas” to mean (in Aramaic) “son of encouragement.”
Barnabas first appears in the book of Acts as a model of generosity for the Jerusalem church when he sells a piece of property to support the poor in the church (4:3637). Barnabas next appears as the member of the Jerusalem church courageous enough to bring Saul, the former persecutor, to the leaders of the Jerusalem church (9:26–27). Later, when reports of Gentile conversions in Antioch were received in Jerusalem, Barnabas was sent to Antioch to supervise the work there. Barnabas went to Tarsus and brought Saul with him to Antioch (11:22–26). There they ministered together, at one point delivering famine relief to Jerusalem (11:30).
The church in Antioch received a revelation from the Holy Spirit to send Barnabas and Saul on the first missionary outreach (Acts 13:2). Accompanied by Barnabas’s cousin John Mark, they traveled to Barnabas’s home island of Cyprus and then to the Roman province of Galatia. Mark deserted the group in Perga and returned to Jerusalem, but Paul and Barnabas established churches in Pisidian Antioch, Iconium, Lystra, and Derbe (Acts 13–14). After returning to Antioch, Barnabas accompanied Paul to the Jerusalem council to settle the Judaizing controversy concerning whether Gentiles must keep the law and be circumcised to be saved (Acts 15).
Upon returning to Antioch, Paul suggested a return to the churches in Galatia. Bar-nabas proposed taking John Mark, but Paul refused, and the ensuing conflict resulted in Paul’s departure to Galatia with Silas, with Barnabas taking John Mark to Cyprus (Acts 15:36–41). This is the last we hear of Bar-nabas in Acts.
Paul mentions Barnabas five times in his letters (1Cor. 9:6; Gal. 2:1, 9, 13; Col. 4:10). He refers to Mark as Barnabas’s cousin (Col. 4:10), speaks of their Jerusalem famine visit (Gal. 2:1, 9), and relates an episode of apparent hypocrisy when Barnabas withdrew from Gentile table fellowship under pressure from Jewish Christians (Gal. 2:13).
There are numerous relationships in the OT that could be characterized as following a servant-master model. These included service to the monarchy (2Sam. 9:2), within households (Gen. 16:8), in the temple (1Sam. 2:15), or to God himself (Judg. 2:8). We also see extensive slavery laws in passages such as Exod. 21:111; Lev. 25:39–55; Deut. 15:12–18. The slavery laws were concerned with the proper treatment of Hebrew slaves and included guidelines for their eventual release and freedom. For example, Hebrew slaves who had sold themselves to others were to serve for a period of six years. On the seventh year, known also as the Sabbath Year, they were to be released. Once released, they were not to be sent away empty-handed, but rather were to be supported from the owner’s “threshing floor” and “winepress.” Slaves also had certain rights that gave them special privileges and protection from their masters. Captured slaves, for example, were allowed rest on the Sabbath (Exod. 20:10) and during special holidays (Deut. 16:11, 14). They could also be freed if their master permanently hurt or crippled them (Exod. 21:26–27). Also, severe punishment was imposed on a person who beat a slave to death (Exod. 21:20–21).
Slavery was very common in the first century AD, and there were many different kinds of slaves. For example, slaves might live in an extended household (oikos) in which they were born, or they might choose to sell themselves into this situation (1Pet. 2:18–25). Although slavery was a significant part of society in the first century AD, we never see Jesus or the apostles encourage slavery. Instead, both Paul and Peter encouraged godly character and obedience for slaves within this system (Eph. 6:5–8; Col. 3:22–25; 1Tim. 6:1–2; Philemon; 1Pet. 2:18–21). Likewise, masters were encouraged to be kind and fair to their slaves (Eph. 6:9; Col. 4:1). Later in the NT, slave trading was condemned by the apostle Paul as contrary to “sound doctrine” and “the gospel concerning the glory of the blessed God” (1Tim. 1:10–11).
Jesus embodied the idea of a servant in word and deed. He fulfilled the role of the “Servant of the Lord,” the Suffering Servant predicted by the prophet Isaiah (Isa. 42:1–4; 50:4–9; 52:13–53:12). He also took on the role of a servant in the Gospels, identifying himself as the Son of Man who came to serve (Mark 10:45) and washing the disciples’ feet (John 13:4–5). Paul says that in the incarnation Jesus took on “the very nature of a servant” (Phil. 2:7).
The special relationship between Jesus and his followers is captured in the servant-master language of the NT Epistles, especially in Paul’s letters (Rom. 1:1; Phil. 1:1; Titus 1:1). This language focuses not so much on the societal status of these servants as on the allegiance and honor owed to Christ Jesus.
Simon Peter is the best-known and the most colorful of Jesus’ twelve disciples. The name “Peter” means “rock” in Greek. In some biblical texts, he is also called “Cephas,” which is the Aramaic word for “rock” (see esp. John 1:42). Despite the ups and downs of Peter’s spiritual life, God was able to use him as the foundational apostle for the establishment of the NT church.
The founder of what became known as the movement of Jesus followers or Christianity. For Christian believers, Jesus Christ embodies the personal and supernatural intervention of God in human history.
Birth and childhood. The Gospels of Matthew and Luke record Jesus’ birth in Bethlehem during the reign of Herod the Great (Matt. 2:1; Luke 2:4, 11). Jesus was probably born between 6 and 4 BC, shortly before Herod’s death (Matt. 2:19). Both Matthew and Luke record the miracle of a virginal conception made possible by the Holy Spirit (Matt. 1:18; Luke 1:35). Luke mentions a census under the Syrian governor Quirinius that was responsible for Jesus’ birth taking place in Bethlehem (2:15). Both the census and the governorship at the time of the birth of Jesus have been questioned by scholars. Unfortunately, there is not enough extrabiblical evidence to either confirm or disprove these events, so their veracity must be determined on the basis of one’s view regarding the general reliability of the Gospel tradition.
On the eighth day after his birth, Jesus was circumcised, in keeping with the Jewish law, at which time he officially was named “Jesus” (Luke 2:21). He spent his growing years in Nazareth, in the home of his parents, Joseph and Mary (2:40). Of the NT Gospels, the Gospel of Luke contains the only brief portrayal of Jesus’ growth in strength, wisdom, and favor with God and people (2:40, 52). Luke also contains the only account of Jesus as a young boy (2:41–49).
Baptism, temptation, and start of ministry. After Jesus was baptized by the prophet John the Baptist (Luke 3:21–22), God affirmed his pleasure with him by referring to him as his Son, whom he loved (Matt. 3:17; Mark 1:11; Luke 3:22). Jesus’ baptism did not launch him into fame and instant ministry success; instead, Jesus was led by the Spirit into the wilderness, where he was tempted for forty days (Matt. 4:1–11; Mark 1:12–13; Luke 4:1–13). Mark stresses that the temptations immediately followed the baptism. Matthew and Luke identify three specific temptations by the devil, though their order for the last two is reversed. Both Matthew and Luke agree that Jesus was tempted to turn stones into bread, expect divine intervention after jumping off the temple portico, and receive all the world’s kingdoms for worshiping the devil. Jesus resisted all temptation, quoting Scripture in response.
Matthew and Mark record that Jesus began his ministry in Capernaum in Galilee, after the arrest of John the Baptist (Matt. 4:12–13; Mark 1:14). Luke says that Jesus started his ministry at about thirty years of age (3:23). This may be meant to indicate full maturity or perhaps correlate this age with the onset of the service of the Levites in the temple (cf. Num. 4:3). John narrates the beginning of Jesus’ ministry by focusing on the calling of the disciples and the sign performed at a wedding at Cana (1:35–2:11).
Galilean ministry. The early stages of Jesus’ ministry centered in and around Galilee. Jesus presented the good news and proclaimed that the kingdom of God was near. Matthew focuses on the fulfillment of prophecy (Matt. 4:13–17). Luke records Jesus’ first teaching in his hometown, Nazareth, as paradigmatic (Luke 4:16–30); the text that Jesus quoted, Isa. 61:1–2, set the stage for his calling to serve and revealed a trajectory of rejection and suffering.
All the Gospels record Jesus’ gathering of disciples early in his Galilean ministry (Matt. 4:18–22; Mark 1:16–20; Luke 5:1–11; John 1:35–51). The formal call and commissioning of the Twelve who would become Jesus’ closest followers is recorded in different parts of the Gospels (Matt. 10:1–4; Mark 3:13–19; Luke 6:12–16). A key event in the early ministry is the Sermon on the Mount/Plain (Matt. 5:1–7:29; Luke 6:20–49). John focuses on Jesus’ signs and miracles, in particular in the early parts of his ministry, whereas the Synoptics focus on healings and exorcisms.
During Jesus’ Galilean ministry, onlookers struggled with his identity. However, evil spirits knew him to be of supreme authority (Mark 3:11). Jesus was criticized by outsiders and by his own family (3:21). The scribes from Jerusalem identified him as a partner of Beelzebul (3:22). Amid these situations of social conflict, Jesus told parables that couched his ministry in the context of a growing kingdom of God. This kingdom would miraculously spring from humble beginnings (4:1–32).
The Synoptics present Jesus’ early Galilean ministry as successful. No challenge or ministry need superseded Jesus’ authority or ability: he calmed a storm (Mark 4:35–39), exorcized many demons (5:1–13), raised the dead (5:35–42), fed five thousand (6:30–44), and walked on water (6:48–49).
In the later part of his ministry in Galilee, Jesus often withdrew and traveled to the north and the east. The Gospel narratives are not written with a focus on chronology. However, only brief returns to Galilee appear to have taken place prior to Jesus’ journey to Jerusalem. As people followed Jesus, faith was praised and fear resolved. Jerusalem’s religious leaders traveled to Galilee, where they leveled accusations and charged Jesus’ disciples with lacking ritual purity (Mark 7:1–5). Jesus shamed the Pharisees by pointing out their dishonorable treatment of parents (7:11–13). The Pharisees challenged his legitimacy by demanding a sign (8:11). Jesus refused them signs but agreed with Peter, who confessed, “You are the Messiah” (8:29). Jesus did provide the disciples a sign: his transfiguration (9:2–8).
Jesus withdrew from Galilee to Tyre and Sidon, where a Syrophoenician woman requested healing for her daughter. Jesus replied, “I was sent only to the lost sheep of Israel” (Matt. 15:24). Galileans had long resented the Syrian provincial leadership partiality that allotted governmental funds in ways that made the Jews receive mere “crumbs.” Consequently, when the woman replied, “Even the dogs eat the crumbs that fall from their master’s table,” Jesus applauded her faith (Matt. 15:27–28). Healing a deaf-mute man in the Decapolis provided another example of Jesus’ ministry in Gentile territory (Mark 7:31–37). Peter’s confession of Jesus as the Christ took place during Jesus’ travel to Caesarea Philippi, a well-known Gentile territory. The city was the ancient center of worship of the Hellenistic god Pan.
Judean ministry. Luke records a geographic turning point in Jesus’ ministry as he resolutely set out for Jerusalem, a direction that eventually led to his death (Luke 9:51). Luke divides the journey to Jerusalem into three phases (9:51–13:21; 13:22–17:10; 17:11–19:27). The opening verses of phase one emphasize a prophetic element of the journey. Jesus viewed his ministry in Jerusalem as his mission, and the demands on discipleship intensified as Jesus approached Jerusalem (Matt. 20:17–19, 26–28; Mark 10:38–39, 43–45; Luke 14:25–35). Luke presents the second phase of the journey toward Jerusalem with a focus on conversations regarding salvation and judgment (Luke 13:22–30). In the third and final phase of the journey, the advent of the kingdom and the final judgment are the main themes (17:20–37; 19:11–27).
Social conflicts with religious leaders increased throughout Jesus’ ministry. These conflicts led to lively challenge-riposte interactions concerning the Pharisaic schools of Shammai and Hillel (Matt. 19:1–12; Mark 10:1–12). Likewise, socioeconomic feathers were ruffled as Jesus welcomed young children, who had little value in society (Matt. 19:13–15; Mark 10:13–16; Luke 18:15–17).
Passion week, death, and resurrection. Each of the Gospels records Jesus’ entry into Jerusalem with the crowds extending him a royal welcome (Matt. 21:4–9; Mark 11:7–10; Luke 19:35–38; John 12:12–15). Luke describes Jesus’ ministry in Jerusalem as a time during which Jesus taught in the temple as Israel’s Messiah (19:45–21:38).
In Jerusalem, Jesus cleansed the temple of profiteering (Mark 11:15–17). Mark describes the religious leaders as fearing Jesus because the whole crowd was amazed at his teaching, and so they “began looking for a way to kill him” (11:18). Dismayed, each segment of Jerusalem’s temple leadership inquired about Jesus’ authority (11:27–33). Jesus replied with cunning questions (12:16, 35–36), stories (12:1–12), denunciation (12:38–44), and a prediction of Jerusalem’s own destruction (13:1–31). One of Jesus’ own disciples, Judas Iscariot, provided the temple leaders the opportunity for Jesus’ arrest (14:10–11).
At the Last Supper, Jesus instituted a new Passover, defining a new covenant grounded in his sufferings (Matt. 26:17–18, 26–29; Mark 14:16–25; Luke 22:14–20). He again warned the disciples of his betrayal and arrest (Matt. 26:21–25, 31; Mark 14:27–31; Luke 22:21–23; John 13:21–30), and later he prayed for the disciples (John 17:1–26) and prayed in agony and submissiveness in the garden of Gethsemane (Matt. 26:36–42; Mark 14:32–42; Luke 22:39–42). His arrest, trial, crucifixion, death, and resurrection followed (Matt. 26:46–28:15; Mark 14:43–16:8; Luke 22:47–24:9; John 18:1–20:18). Jesus finally commissioned his disciples to continue his mission by making disciples of all the nations (Matt. 28:18–20; Acts 1:8) and ascended to heaven with the promise that he will one day return (Luke 24:50–53; Acts 1:9–11).
Headgear signifying honor, victory, power, or authority. A crown was worn by monarchs in the ancient world to designate their royal power, often including a golden headband with precious stones in it, as well as a turban.
There are two important types of crowns in the OT: the priestly and the royal. A royal crown first appears with Saul (2Sam. 1:10) and is worn by monarchs after him, including David (2Sam. 12:30; 1Chron. 20:2; see also Pss. 21:3; 132:18) and Joash (2Kings 11:12; 2Chron. 23:11). The book of Exodus depicts a crownlike turban to which is affixed a golden “sacred emblem” bearing the inscription “Holy to the Lord,” which is to be worn by the high priest (Exod. 28:3637; 29:6; see also, e.g., 39:30; Lev. 8:9).
Zechariah 6:11–14 looks to a future messiah, “the Branch,” who will be both priest and king, thus wearing a priestly and royal crown. Before his crucifixion, Jesus’ tormentors place on his head a mock crown made of thorns (Matt. 27:29; Mark 15:17; John 19:2, 5). In the book of Revelation both godly and satanic figures wear crowns: the elders in heaven (4:4, 10), the rider of the white horse (6:2), the locusts from the Abyss (9:7), the woman clothed with the sun (12:1), the dragon and the beast (12:3; 13:1), the one “like a son of man” (14:14), and Christ himself (19:12).
Literally, fruit is the seed-bearing part of a plant. It constitutes an important part of the diet in the ancient Near East. Common fruits are olives, grapes, and figs, though many other varieties of fruit are also available, including apples, apricots, peaches, pomegranates, dates, and melons. Fruit trees play a prominent role as a food source in God’s creation and preparation of the garden of Eden (Gen. 13). The law prohibits the Israelites from cutting down their enemy’s fruit trees (Deut. 20:19). The abundance of fruit trees characterizes the land that God has prepared for Israel (Deut. 8:8; Neh. 9:25) as well as the final restoration (Ezek. 47:12; Joel 2:22; Rev. 22:2).
One aspect of fruit is that it grows from a plant. This use of the term is often extended to represent what emerges from something else. Thus, fruit may represent offspring, whether human or animal (Deut. 7:13; 28:4), one’s actions (Matt. 7:16–20), the result of one’s actions or choices (Prov. 1:31; 10:16; Jer. 17:10), or words coming from one’s mouth (Prov. 12:14; Heb. 13:15). In the NT especially, producing much fruit symbolizes performing deeds that are pleasing to God (Matt. 3:8; 13:23; Mark 4:20; John 15:16; Rom. 7:4; Col. 1:10). Those who live by the Spirit produce the fruit of the Spirit (Gal. 5:22–23). The apostle Paul speaks of the first converts in a particular region as being firstfruits, probably referring to their conversion as the result of the gospel being preached in the area (Rom. 16:5; 2Thess. 2:13).
The tangible presence of God, experienced as overwhelming power and splendor. The main Hebrew word referring to glory, kabod, has the root meaning “heavy” (1Sam. 4:18), which in other contexts can mean “intense” (Exod. 9:3; NIV: “terrible”), “wealthy” (i.e., “heavy in possessions” [Gen. 13:2]), and “high reputation” (Gen. 34:19; NIV: “most honored”). When used of God, it refers to his person and his works. God reveals his glory to Israel and to Egypt at the crossing of the sea (Exod. 14:4, 1719). He carefully reveals his glory to Moses after Israel’s sin with the golden calf in order to assure him that he will not abandon them (33:12–23).
In the NT the glory of God is made real in the person of Jesus Christ (John 1:14; Heb. 1:3). He is, after all, the very presence of God. When he returns on the clouds, he will fully reveal God’s glory (Matt. 24:30; Mark 13:26; Luke 21:27).
The English word “gospel” translates the Greek word euangelion, which is very important in the NT, being used seventy-six times. The word euangelion (eu= “good,” angelion= “announcement”), in its contemporary use in the Hellenistic world, was not the title of a book but rather a declaration of good news. Euangelion was used in the Roman Empire with reference to significant events in the life of the emperor, who was thought of as a savior with divine status. These events included declarations at the time of his birth, his coming of age, and his accession to the throne. The NT usage of the term can also be traced to the OT (e.g., Isa. 40:9; 52:7; 61:1), which looked forward to the coming of the Messiah, who would bring a time of salvation. This good news, which is declared in the NT, is that Jesus has fulfilled God’s promises to Israel, and now the way of salvation is open to all.
The harvest was a major event on the yearly calendar of Israel’s agrarian society (Lev. 25:11; Judg. 15:1; Ruth 1:22; 2Sam. 21:910). Life was dependent on the harvest. As a result, God set certain rules with respect to the harvest to help the Israelites keep proper priorities. Every seven years and every fiftieth year, the people were to give the land a rest (Exod. 23:10; Lev. 25:20–22). The people were to rest on the Sabbath, even during the harvesttime (Exod. 34:21). Some portions of crops were to be left in the field so that the poor might have food (Lev. 19:9; 23:22; Deut. 24:21). The people were to acknowledge God as the source of the harvest by offering the first of the produce (Lev. 23:10). Celebrating the harvest was commanded (Exod. 23:16; Deut. 16:15; Isa. 9:3). Planning for the harvest was a mark of wisdom (Prov. 6:8; 10:5; 20:4). Even as a good harvest was the blessing of God (Ps. 67:6; Isa. 62:9), so a bad harvest was a curse from God and the plight of a fool (1Sam. 12:17; Job 5:5; Prov. 26:1; Isa. 18:4–5; Jer. 8:13, 20; Joel 3:12; Mic. 6:15). Failure to acknowledge God for the harvest was a sin (Jer. 5:24).
The harvest is often used in Scripture as an analogy. The prophets talk about the negative harvest of idolatry (Isa. 17:11). Israel is called the firstfruits of God’s harvest (Jer. 2:3). Hosea uses the idea of harvest to indicate that God’s people have a future (Hos. 6:11). In the Gospels, the harvest is used as an analogy for those needing to hear the good news (Matt. 9:37–38), for the end times (Matt. 13:24–30; Rev. 14:15), and for a lesson about unfaithful leadership (Matt. 21:33–46; 25:24). In the remainder of the NT, the harvest analogy usually refers to Christian growth and salvation (Rom. 1:13; 1Cor. 9:10–11; 2Cor. 9:10; Gal. 6:9; Heb. 12:11; James 3:18).
Holiness is an attribute of God and of all that is fit for association with him. God alone is intrinsically holy (Rev. 15:4). God the Father is holy (John 17:11), as is the Son (Acts 3:14), while “Holy” is the characteristic designation of God’s Spirit (Ps. 51:11; Matt. 1:18). God’s name is holy (Luke 1:49), as are his arm (Ps. 98:1), ways (Ps. 77:13), and words (Ps. 105:42).
With reference to God himself, holiness may indicate something like his uniqueness, and it is associated with attributes such as his glory (Isa. 6:3), righteousness (Isa. 5:16), and jealousy—that is, his proper concern for his reputation (Josh. 24:19).
God’s dwelling place is in heaven (Ps. 20:6), and “holy” functions in some contexts as a virtual equivalent for heavenly (11:4). God’s throne is holy (47:8), and the angels who surround it are “holy ones” (89:5; cf. Mark 8:38).
A corollary of God’s holiness is that he must be treated as holy (Lev. 22:32)—that is, honored (Lev. 10:3), worshiped (Ps. 96:9), and feared (Isa. 8:13).
While “holy” is sometimes said to mean “set apart,” this does not appear to be its core meaning, though it is an associated notion (Lev. 20:26; Heb. 7:26). Holiness, as applied to people and things, is a relational concept. They are (explicitly or implicitly) holy “to the Lord” (Exod. 28:36), never “from” something.
The symbolic representation of God’s heavenly palace, the tabernacle (Exod. 40:9), and later the temple (1Chron. 29:3), and everything associated with them, are holy and the means whereby God’s people in the OT may symbolically be brought near to God. For God to share his presence with anything or anyone else, these too must be holy (Lev. 11:4445; Heb. 12:14).
The OT system of worship involved the distinction between unclean and clean, and between common and holy, and the means of effecting a transition to a state of cleanness or holiness (Lev. 10:10). People, places, and items may be made holy by a process of consecration or sanctification, whether simply by God’s purifying presence (Exod. 3:5) or by ritual acts (Exod. 19:10; 29:36).
God’s faithful people are described as holy (Exod. 19:6; 1Pet. 2:9). In the OT, this is true of the whole people of God at one level, and of particular individuals at another. Thus, kings (Ps. 16:10), prophets (2Kings 4:9), and in particular priests (Lev. 21:7) are declared to be holy. While the OT witnesses to some tension between the collective holiness of Israel and the particular holiness of its designated leaders (Num. 16:3), the latter were intended to act as models and facilitators of Israel’s holiness.
At times simply indicating a wish (2Cor. 11:1), in the Bible the word “hope” most often designates a disposition of soul, the grounds for one’s hope, or the outcome for which one hopes. At its core, biblical hope is hope in God, rooted in God’s covenant faithfulness (Ps. 62:58; Jer. 14:8; 17:13; Rom. 4:18; 5:1–5). Hope trusts God in the present and lives even now on the strength of God’s future accomplishments (Gal. 5:5; Heb. 11:1).
In the NT, hope is closely associated with Christ and his saving work. Christians now live by hope in Christ (Eph. 1:12; 1Pet. 1:3; 3:15); indeed, he is “Christ Jesus our hope” (1Tim. 1:1), and his future appearing is “the blessed hope” (Titus 2:13). Thus, hope refers to eschatological glory (2Cor. 3:11–12; Eph. 1:18). It is “the hope of the resurrection” (Acts 23:6; cf. 24:15; 26:6–9), our transformation into Christ’s likeness (1John 3:1–3). That expectation stimulates various hopes for God’s plans to be realized in one’s own or others’ lives (1Cor. 9:10, 13; Phil. 2:19, 23; 2Tim. 2:25; 2John 12). So hope is named repeatedly as an essential Christian attribute (Rom. 12:12; 15:4, 13; 1Cor. 13:13).
The property or state of not being subject to decay or deterioration, and thus heavenly. “Imperishability” (Gk. aphtharsia) and immortality are closely linked; note that the Greek adjective for “imperishable,” aphthartos, can be translated “immortal” (e.g., Rom. 1:23). Often the Bible contrasts the imperishable with the perishable. Thus, Paul contrasts the perishable earthly body with the imperishable resurrection body (1Cor. 15:42, 5055) and an imperishable reward with a perishable reward (1Cor. 9:25 NRSV, NET). Peter explains that the believer’s new birth is “not of perishable seed, but of imperishable, through the living and enduring word of God” (1Pet. 1:23).
Of several Hebrew words for “judgment,” two are important here.
The word shepet is used of God, who brings the judgments upon the Egyptians in the plagues (Exod. 6:6; 7:4; 12:12). Ezekiel prophesies God’s judgment on Israel and other nations (e.g., Ezek. 5:10; 16:41; 25:11). The word is also applied to human beings, as the Syrians execute judgment on Israel (2Chron. 24:24).
The most frequent noun is mishpat. Abraham is noted for mishpat, “judgment/justice” (Gen. 18:19). God by attribute is just (Gen. 18:25); he shows justice toward the orphan and the widow (Deut. 10:18) and brings judgment on behalf of the oppressed (Ps. 25:9). At the waters of Marah, God makes a judgment, an ordinance for the people (Exod. 15:25). Similarly, the mishpatim, “judgments/ordinances,” become law for life in Israel (Exod. 21:1). In making judicial judgments, the Israelites are to be impartial (Lev. 19:15), and they are to use good judgment and justice in trade (Lev. 19:35; Prov. 16:11). Israel will be judged for rejecting God’s judgments (Ezek. 5:78) and worshiping false gods (Jer. 1:16). Those accused of crime will come to judgment/trial (Num. 35:12). The children of Israel come to their judges for judgment (Judg. 4:5). God will bring each person to a time of judgment regarding how his or her life is spent (Eccles. 11:9).
One key word in the NT is krisis. It has a range of meaning similar to mishpat. In the NT, judgment is rendered for thoughts and words as well as deeds (Matt. 5:21–22; 12:36). Future, eschatological judgment is a key theme for Jesus (Matt. 10:15; 11:22, 24; 12:42), Paul (2Thess. 1:5), and other NT writers (Heb. 9:27; 10:27; 2Pet. 2:9; 3:7; 1John 4:17; Jude 15; Rev. 14:7). Jesus himself will be the judge (John 5:22). The only way to avoid condemnation is by having eternal life in the Messiah (John 5:24).
Another key word in the NT is krima. It may refer to condemnation (Matt. 7:2; Rom. 3:8) or to judgment, again including the eschatological judgment (Acts 24:25). Krima is the word most frequently used by Paul. He also often presents judgment as already realized (e.g., Rom. 2:2–3; 5:16). In the later epistles judgment may be realized as well (2Pet. 2:3; Jude 4). James points out that not many should presume to be teachers, because they will be judged more strictly (James 3:1).
In general, Torah (Law) may be subdivided into three categories: judicial, ceremonial, and moral, though each of these may influence or overlap with the others. The OT associates the “giving of the Torah” with Moses’ first divine encounter at Mount Sinai (Exod. 1923) following the Israelites’ deliverance from the land of Egypt, though some body of customary legislation existed before this time (Exod. 18). These instructions find expansion and elucidation in other pentateuchal texts, such as Leviticus and Deut. 12–24, indicating that God’s teachings were intended as the code of conduct and worship for Israel not only during its wilderness wanderings but also when it settled in the land of Canaan following the conquest.
More specifically, the word “law” often denotes the Ten Commandments (or “the Decalogue,” lit., the “ten words”) (Exod. 34:28; Deut. 4:13; 10:4) that were delivered to Moses (Exod. 20:1–17; Deut. 5:6–21). These commandments reflect a summary statement of the covenant and may be divided into two parts, consistent with the two tablets of stone on which they were first recorded: the first four address the individual’s relationship to God, and the last six focus on instructions concerning human relationships. Despite the apparent simplistic expression of the Decalogue, the complexity of these guidelines extends beyond individual acts and attitudes, encompassing any and all incentives, enticements, and pressures leading up to a thing forbidden. Not only should the individual refrain from doing the prohibited thing, but also he or she is obligated to practice its opposite good in order to be in compliance.
In the NT the most common word used for “minister” is diakonos (e.g., 2Cor. 3:6), and for “ministry,” diakonia (e.g., 1Cor. 16:15 [NIV: “service”]). These words function as umbrella terms for NT writers to describe the whole range of ministries performed by the church. They can describe either a special ministry performed by an official functionary (1Cor. 3:5) or one performed by any believer (Rev. 2:19). In the early church, ministry was based not on institutional hierarchies but on services performed (1Tim. 3:113).
The ministry of Jesus. The church’s mind-set flows out of the way in which Jesus understood his ministry. He described his ministry pattern as that of serving (Matt. 20:28; Mark 10:45; John 13:4–17). Thus, he called his disciples to follow a model of leadership in the new community that did not elevate them above others (Matt. 20:20–28; 23:8–12; cf. 1Pet. 5:3).
Jesus’ ministry provides the paradigm for the ministry of the church. The NT writers describe the threefold ministry of Jesus as preaching, teaching, and healing (Matt. 4:23; 9:35; Mark 1:14, 21–22, 39; Acts 10:36–38). The disciples carried on the earthly ministry of Jesus by the power of the Spirit. They too engaged in preaching, teaching, and healing (Matt. 10:7–8; 28:19–20).
The ministry of the church. The church, because it is the body of Christ, continues these ministry responsibilities. In 1Pet. 4:10–11 is a summary of the overarching ministries of the church, which include speaking the words of God and serving. As a priesthood of believers (Exod. 19:4–6; 1Pet. 2:5, 9; Rev. 1:5–6), individual members took responsibility for fulfilling the various tasks of service. Thus, all Christians are called to minister (Rom. 15:27; Philem. 13; 1Pet. 2:16). Even when a member strayed, it was another believer’s responsibility to confront that wayward person and, if necessary, involve others in the body to help (Matt. 18:15–20).
Although ministry was the responsibility of all believers, there were those with special expertise whom Christ and the church set apart for particular leadership roles (Eph. 4:11–12). Christ set apart Apollos and Paul for special ministries (1Cor. 3:5; Eph. 3:7). The church called on special functionaries to carry out specific ministries. For example, the early church appointed seven individuals to serve tables (Acts 6:2). They appointed certain ones to carry the relief fund collected for the Jerusalem Christians (2Cor. 8:19, 23). As special functionaries, Paul, Apollos, Timothy, Titus, the elders, as well as others accepted the responsibility of teaching and preaching and healing for the whole church.
All the ministries of the church, whether performed by believers in general or by some specially appointed functionary, were based on gifts received from God (Rom. 12:1–8; 1Cor. 12:4–26). God gave individuals the abilities necessary to perform works of service (Acts 20:24; Eph. 4:11; Col. 4:17; 1Tim. 1:12; 1Pet. 4:11). The NT, however, makes it clear that when it comes to one’s relationship and spiritual status before God, all Christians are equal. Yet in equality there is diversity of gifts and talents. Paul identifies some gifts given to individuals for special positions: apostles, prophets, evangelists, pastors, and teachers (Eph. 4:11). The description here is of special ministry roles that Christ calls certain individuals to fulfill based on the gifts given to them. The ones fulfilling these roles did not do all the ministry of the church but rather equipped the rest of the body to do ministry (Eph. 4:12–13). No one can boast in the gifts given to him or her because those gifts were given for ministry to others (1Cor. 4:7). Thus, gifts lead to service, and in turn service results in leadership.
It becomes the responsibility of those who lead to equip others for ministry. When others are equipped for ministry, they in turn minister and edify the whole body (Eph. 4:15–16; 2Tim. 2:1–2). The goal of all ministry, according to Paul, is to build up a community of believers until all reach maturity in Christ (Rom. 15:15–17; 1Cor. 3:5–4:5; Eph. 4:12–16; 1Thess. 2:19–20).
Moses played a leadership role in the founding of Israel as a “kingdom of priests and a holy nation” (Exod. 19:6). Indeed, the narrative of Exodus through Deuteronomy is the story of God using Moses to found the nation of Israel. It begins with an account of his birth (Exod. 2) and ends with an account of his death (Deut. 34). Moses’ influence and importance extend well beyond his lifetime, as later Scripture demonstrates.
Moses was born in a dangerous time, and according to Pharaoh’s decree, he should not have survived long after his birth. He was born to Amram and Jochebed (Exod. 6:20). Circumventing Pharaoh’s decree, Jochebed placed the infant Moses in a reed basket and floated him down the river. God guided the basket down the river and into the presence of none other than Pharaoh’s daughter (Exod. 2:56), who, at the urging of Moses’ sister, hired Jochebed to take care of the child.
The next major episode in the life of Moses concerns his defense of an Israelite worker who was being beaten by an Egyptian (Exod. 2:11–25). In the process of rescuing the Israelite, Moses killed the Egyptian. When it became clear that he was known to be the killer, he fled Egypt and ended up in Midian, where he became a member of the family of a Midianite priest-chief, Jethro, by marrying his daughter Zipporah.
Although Moses was not looking for a way back into Egypt, God had different plans. One day, while Moses was tending his sheep, God appeared to him in the form of a burning bush and commissioned him to go back to Egypt and lead his people to freedom. Moses expressed reluctance, and so God grudgingly enlisted his older brother, Aaron, to accompany him as his spokesperson.
Upon Moses’ return to Egypt, Pharaoh stubbornly refused to allow the Israelites to leave Egypt. God directed Moses to announce a series of plagues that ultimately induced Pharaoh to allow the Israelites to depart. After they left, Pharaoh had a change of mind and cornered them on the shores of the Red Sea (Sea of Reeds). It was at the Red Sea that God demonstrated his great power by splitting the sea and allowing the Israelites to escape before closing it again in judgment on the Egyptians. Moses signaled the presence of God by lifting his rod high in the air (Exod. 14:16). This event was long remembered as the defining moment when God released Israel from Egyptian slavery (Pss. 77; 114), and it even became the paradigm for future divine rescues (Isa. 40:3–5; Hos. 2:14–15).
After the crossing of the Red Sea, Moses led Israel back to Mount Sinai, the location of his divine commissioning. At this time, Moses went up the mountain as a prophetic mediator for the people (Deut. 18:16). He received the Ten Commandments, the rest of the law, and instructions to build the tabernacle (Exod. 19–24). All these were part of a new covenantal arrangement that today we refer to as the Mosaic or Sinaitic covenant.
However, as Moses came down the mountain with the law, he saw that the people, who had grown tired of waiting, were worshiping a false god that they had created in the form of a golden calf (Exod. 32). With the aid of the Levites, who that day assured their role as Israel’s priestly helpers, he brought God’s judgment against the offenders and also interceded in prayer with God to prevent the total destruction of Israel.
Thus began Israel’s long story of rebellion against God. God was particularly upset with the lack of confidence that the Israelites had shown when the spies from the twelve tribes gave their report (Num. 13). They did not believe that God could handle the fearsome warriors who lived in the land, and so God doomed them to forty years of wandering in the wilderness, enough time for the first generation to die. Not even Moses escaped this fate, since he had shown anger against God and attributed a miracle to his own power and not to God when he struck a rock in order to get water (Num. 20:1–13).
Thus, Moses was not permitted to enter the land of promise, though he had led the Israelites to the very brink of entry on the plains of Moab. There he gave his last sermon, which we know as the book of Deuteronomy. The purpose of his sermon was to tell the second generation of Israelites who were going to enter the land that they must obey God’s law or suffer the consequences. The form of the sermon was that of a covenant renewal, and so Israel on this occasion reaffirmed its loyalty to God.
After this, Moses went up on Mount Nebo, from which he could see the promised land, and died. Deuteronomy concludes with the following statements: “Since then, no prophet has risen in Israel like Moses, whom the Lord knew face to face.... For no one has ever shown the mighty power or performed the awesome deeds that Moses did in the sight of all Israel” (Deut. 34:10, 12).
The NT honors Moses as God’s servant but also makes the point that Jesus is one who far surpasses Moses as a mediator between God and people (Acts 3:17–26; Heb. 3).
The date of Moses is a matter of controversy because the biblical text does not name the pharaohs of the story. Many date him to the thirteenth century BC and associate him with RamessesII, but others take 1Kings 6:1 at face value and date him to the end of the fifteenth century BC, perhaps during the reign of ThutmoseIII.
An instrument and process used by farmers to break up ground in preparation for planting (Isa. 28:24; Hos. 10:11). The plow was made of wood (1Kings 19:21), and the point was covered with a metal plowshare (Isa. 2:4; Joel 3:10) that required occasional sharpening (1Sam. 13:2021). Usually, plowmen used pairs of oxen (1Kings 19:19; Job 1:14) to pull the plow, although one might harness single animals or other animals such as donkeys (Deut. 22:10), depending on the situation and resources. The busy time of plowing at the beginning of the rainy season (around November) required hard work (Exod. 34:21; Prov. 20:4) and commitment (Luke 9:62). One also finds the term “plow” used figuratively for creating or doing something (making trouble [Job 4:8]), often with the negative ideas of destruction (Jer. 26:18) or punishment (Ps. 129:3).
“Salvation” is the broadest term used to refer to God’s actions to solve the plight brought about by humankind’s sinful rebellion and its consequences. It is one of the central themes of the entire Bible, running from Genesis through Revelation.
In many places in the OT, salvation refers to being rescued from physical rather than spiritual trouble. Fearing the possibility of retribution from his brother Esau, Jacob prays, “Save me, I pray, from the hand of my brother Esau” (Gen. 32:11). The actions of Joseph in Egypt saved many from famine (45:57; 47:25; 50:20). Frequently in the psalms, individuals pray for salvation from enemies that threaten one’s safety or life (Pss. 17:14; 18:3; 70:1–3; 71:1–4; 91:1–3).
Related to this usage are places where the nation of Israel and/or its king were saved from enemies. The defining example of this is the exodus, whereby God delivered his people from their enslavement to the Egyptians, culminating in the destruction of Pharaoh and his army (Exod. 14:1–23). From that point forward in the history of Israel, God repeatedly saved Israel from its enemies, whether through a judge (e.g., Judg. 2:16; 3:9), a king (2Kings 14:27), or even a shepherd boy (1Sam. 17:1–58).
But these examples of national deliverance had a profound spiritual component as well. God did not save his people from physical danger as an end in itself; it was the necessary means for his plan to save them from their sins. The OT recognizes the need for salvation from sin (Pss. 39:8; 51:14; 120:2) but, as the NT makes evident, does not provide a final solution (Heb. 9:1–10:18). One of the clearest places that physical and spiritual salvation come together is Isa. 40–55, where Judah’s exile from the land and prophesied return are seen as the physical manifestation of the much more fundamental spiritual exile that resulted from sin. To address that far greater reality, God announces the day when the Suffering Servant would once and for all take away the sins of his people (Isa. 52:13–53:12).
As in the OT, the NT has places where salvation refers to being rescued from physical difficulty. Paul, for example, speaks of being saved from various physical dangers, including execution (2Cor. 1:8–10; Phil. 1:19; 2Tim. 4:17). In the midst of a fierce storm, Jesus’ disciples cry out, “Lord, save us! We’re going to drown!” (Matt. 8:25). But far more prominent are the places in the Gospels and Acts where physical healings are described with the verb sōzō, used to speak of salvation from sin. The healing of the woman with the hemorrhage (Mark 5:25–34), the blind man along the road (Luke 18:35–43), and even the man possessed by a demon (Luke 8:26–39), just to name a few, are described with the verb sōzō. The same verb, however, is also used to refer to Jesus forgiving someone’s sins (Luke 7:36–50) and to his mission to save the lost from their sins (Luke 19:10). Such overlap is a foretaste of the holistic salvation (physical and spiritual) that will be completed in the new heaven and earth (Rev. 21–22). The NT Epistles give extensive descriptions of how the work of Jesus Christ saves his people from their sins.
In the biblical world, documents were sealed with clay or wax (1Kings 21:8; Job 38:14; Neh. 9:38; Jer. 32:10; Rev. 5:1). The integrity of the seal was assured by impressing an image into the soft substance, which would then harden and retain the unique image of the sender’s seal. The archaeological record attests this practice in the form of bullae (the impressions themselves, which survive long after the documents have disintegrated) as well as a large number of seals, which often were carved (Exod. 28:11; 39:6; Sir. 38:27; 45:11) into semiprecious stones or stone cylinders.
A person’s unique seal was closely identified with the owner and could be worn as a ring or pendant (see Gen. 38:18; Esther 8:8; Song 8:6). Besides documents, we have rec-ords of the sealing of caves (Matt. 27:66; cf. Dan. 6:17; 2Macc. 2:5) and bags (Job 14:17; Tob. 9:5). In apocalyptic literature, seals are used to conceal prophecies of the future (Dan. 12:4) and to mark humans as belonging to God (Rev. 7:38).
The management of available resources in the recognition that God is the owner and provider of all things. The Bible is clear that God is the maker and owner of all things. The psalmist wrote, “The earth is the Lord’s, and everything in it, the world, and all who live in it” (Ps. 24:1). God told Job, “Everything under heaven belongs to me” (Job 41:11). In the same way, God says, “The silver is mine and the gold is mine” (Hag. 2:8). Stewardship is based upon the principle that God is the maker of all things. Since God is the creator and owner of all things, God’s followers are charged with managing what he has given.
While in the OT suffering is regularly an indication of divine displeasure (Lev. 26:1636; Deut. 28:20–68; Ps. 44:10–12; Isa. 1:25; cf. Heb. 10:26–31), in the NT it becomes the means by which blessing comes to humanity.
The Bible often shows that sinfulness results in suffering (Gen. 2:17; 6:5–7; Exod. 32:33; 2Sam. 12:13–18; Rom. 1:18; 1Cor. 11:27–30). Job’s friends mistakenly assume that he has suffered because of disobedience (Job 4:7–9; 8:3–4, 20; 11:6). Job passionately defends himself (12:4; 23:10), and in the final chapter of the book God commends Job and condemns his friends for their accusations (42:7–8; cf. 1:1, 22; 2:10). The writer makes clear that suffering is not necessarily evidence of sinfulness. Like Job’s friends, Jesus’ disciples assume that blindness is an indication of sinfulness (John 9:1–2). Jesus rejects this simplistic notion of retributive suffering (John 9:3, 6–7; cf. Luke 13:1–5).
The NT writers reveal that Jesus’ suffering was prophesied in the OT (Mark 9:12; 14:21; Luke 18:31–32; 24:46; Acts 3:18; 17:3; 26:22–23; 1Pet. 1:11; referring to OT texts such as Ps. 22; Isa. 52:13–53:12; Zech. 13:7). The Lord Jesus is presented as the answer to human suffering: (1)Through the incarnation, God’s Son personally experienced human suffering (Phil. 2:6–8; Heb. 2:9; 5:8). (2)Through his suffering, Christ paid the price for sin (Rom. 4:25; 3:25–26), so that believers are set free from sin (Rom. 6:6, 18, 22) and helped in temptation (Heb. 2:18). (3)Christ Jesus intercedes for his suffering followers (Rom. 8:34–35). (4)Christ is the example in suffering (1Pet. 2:21; 4:1; cf. Phil. 3:10; 2Cor. 1:5; 4:10; 1Pet. 4:13), and though he died once for sins (Heb. 10:12), he continues to suffer as his church suffers (Acts 9:4–5). (5)Christ provides hope of resurrection (Rom. 6:5; 1Cor. 15:20–26; Phil. 3:10–11) and a future life without suffering or death (Rev. 21:4).
The NT writers repeatedly mention the benefits of suffering, for it has become part of God’s work of redemption. The suffering of believers accompanies the proclamation and advancement of the gospel (Acts 5:41–42; 9:15–16; 2Cor. 4:10–11; 6:2–10; Phil. 1:12, 27–29; 1Thess. 2:14–16; 2Tim. 1:8; 4:5) and results in salvation (Matt. 10:22; 2Cor. 1:6; 1Thess. 2:16; 2Tim. 2:10; Heb. 10:39), faith (Heb. 10:32–34, 38–39; 1Pet. 1:7), the kingdom of God (Acts 14:22), resurrection from the dead (Phil. 3:10–11), and the crown of life (Rev. 2:10). It is an essential part of the development toward Christian maturity (Rom. 5:3–4; 2Cor. 4:11; Heb. 12:4; James 1:3–4; 1Pet. 1:7; 4:1).
Suffering is associated with knowing Christ (Phil. 3:10); daily inward renewal (2Cor. 4:16); purity, understanding, patience, kindness, sincere love, truthful speech, the power of God (2Cor. 4:4–10); comfort and endurance (2Cor. 1:6); obedience (Heb. 5:8); blessing (1Pet. 3:14; 4:14); glory (Rom. 8:17; 2Cor. 4:17); and joy (Matt. 5:12; Acts 5:41; 2Cor. 6:10; 12:10; James 1:2; 1Pet. 1:6; 4:13). Other positive results of Christian suffering include perseverance (Rom. 5:3; James 1:3), character and hope (Rom. 5:4), strength (2Cor. 12:10), and maturity and completeness (James 1:4). Present suffering is light and momentary when compared to future glory (Matt. 5:10–12; Acts 14:22; Rom. 8:18; 2Cor. 4:17; Heb. 10:34–36; 1Pet. 1:5–7; 4:12–13).
Throughout the Bible, believers are instructed to help those who suffer. The OT law provides principles for assisting the poor, the disadvantaged, and the oppressed (Exod. 20:10; 21:2; 23:11; Lev. 19:13, 34; 25:10, 35; Deut. 14:28–29; 15:1–2; 24:19–21). Jesus regularly taught his followers to help the poor (Matt. 5:42; 6:3; 19:21; 25:34–36; Luke 4:18; 12:33; 14:13, 21). It is believers’ responsibility to show mercy (Matt. 5:7; 9:13), be generous (Rom. 12:8; 2Cor. 8:7; 1Tim. 6:18), mourn with mourners (Rom. 12:15), carry other’s burdens (Gal. 6:1–2), and visit prisoners (Matt. 25:36, 43). See also Servant of the Lord.
Direct Matches
What fills the space between the earth and heavens, providinga domain for flying birds (Gen. 1:6–8, 20–23; Deut.4:17). “Birds of the air,” or “birds in the sky,”is a common biblical expression (e.g., Gen. 1:26, 28, 30; 2:19–20;Pss. 8:8; 79:2; 104:12; Matt. 6:26; 8:20; 13:32). Moses threw sootinto the air, which led to the plague of boils on Egypt (Exod.9:8–12). People threw dust into the air as an expression ofmourning (Acts 22:23). Paul uses the images of boxing and speaking“into the air” to express futility (1 Cor. 9:26;14:9). As the boundary between earth and heaven, the air is whereChrist will meet his church at his coming (1 Thess. 4:17).Paul’s contemporaries also distinguished between lower, impureair (vapor) and upper, pure air (ether). Spirits haunted the vapor.Paul therefore claims that Satan is the evil spirit who rules the airbelow where Jesus is seated at the right hand of the Father (Eph.1:20–23; 2:2).
A name given by the apostles to Joseph, a Levite from Cyprus,missionary companion of Paul, and cousin of John Mark (Acts 4:36).Luke interprets the name “Barnabas” to mean (in Aramaic)“son of encouragement,” although this etymology isdebated. Barnabas was known in the early church for hisgenerosity and reconciling spirit.
Barnabasfirst appears in the book of Acts as a model of generosity for theJerusalem church when he sells a piece of property to support thepoor in the church (4:36–37). His example contrasts sharplywith Ananias and Sapphira, who are judged by God for lying to theHoly Spirit concerning their own gift to the church. Barnabas nextappears as the member of the Jerusalem church courageous enough tobring Saul, the former persecutor, to the leaders of the Jerusalemchurch (9:26–27). Later, when reports of Gentile conversions inAntioch were received in Jerusalem, Barnabas was sent to Antioch tosupervise the work there. Barnabas went to Tarsus and brought Saulwith him to Antioch (11:22–26). There they ministered together,at one point delivering famine relief to Jerusalem (11:30).
Thechurch in Antioch received a revelation from the Holy Spirit to sendBarnabas and Saul on the first missionary outreach (Acts 13:2).Accompanied by Barnabas’s cousin John Mark, they traveled toBarnabas’s home island of Cyprus and then to the Roman provinceof Galatia. Mark deserted the group in Perga and returned toJerusalem, but Paul and Barnabas established churches in PisidianAntioch, Iconium, Lystra, and Derbe (Acts 13–14). Afterreturning to Antioch, Barnabas accompanied Paul to the Jerusalemcouncil to settle the Judaizing controversy concerning whetherGentiles must keep the law and be circumcised to be saved (Acts 15).
Uponreturning to Antioch, Paul suggested a return to the churches inGalatia. Barnabas proposed taking John Mark, but Paul refused, andthe ensuing conflict resulted in Paul’s departure to Galatiawith Silas, with Barnabas taking John Mark to Cyprus (Acts 15:36–41).This is the last we hear of Barnabas in Acts.
Paulmentions Barnabas five times in his letters (1 Cor. 9:6; Gal.2:1, 9, 13; Col. 4:10). He refers to Mark as Barnabas’s cousin(Col. 4:10), speaks of their Jerusalem famine visit (Gal. 2:1, 9),and relates an episode of apparent hypocrisy when Barnabas withdrewfrom Gentile table fellowship under pressure from Jewish Christians(Gal. 2:13).
Laterchurch writings attributed additional traditions to Barnabas. Clementof Alexandria claimed that Barnabas was one of the seventy sent outby Jesus in Luke 10 and also identified him as the author of theEpistle of Barnabas. Tertullian said that Barnabas wrote Hebrews, andthe fifth or sixth century Acts of Barnabas describes his laterministry and martyrdom in Cyprus. None of these later traditions havesufficient evidence to confirm their historicity.
The KJV translation of certain Greek constructions referringto “flesh.” Most contemporary English versions prefer “ofthe flesh,” “earthly,” “worldly,” andeven “sinful.” Occasionally “carnal” simplyrefers to physical or material things (e.g., Rom. 15:27; 1 Cor.9:11) or to certain aspects of the OT that have been fulfilled inChrist (Heb. 7:16; 9:10). The notion occurs most frequently in thewritings of Paul, who makes special use of “carnal” tocontrast it with “spiritual.” In Rom. 8:1–11 Paulpresents the carnal or worldly person as “Spirit-less”and therefore “Christ-less.” By definition, a Christianis spiritual and cannot be carnal (“live according to thesinful nature” [8:4]). That is, those who have Christnecessarily have the Holy Spirit, and therefore they do not followthe pattern of the world, but rather walk by the Spirit and producespiritual fruit (Gal. 5:16–26).
Inother contexts the same apostle can describe Christians as “carnal”(KJV) or “worldly” (NIV). “Brothers, I could notaddress you as spiritual but as worldly—mere infants inChrist. . . . For since there is jealousy andquarreling among you, are you not worldly?” (1 Cor.3:1–3). Here Paul rebukes the Corinthian Christians for theirimmaturity. The Spirit has sanctified them (6:11), but in theirsinful pride and divisiveness they appear to belong to the world, theevil age of sin and death. They must “grow up” so thattheir conduct befits the Spirit, who now dwells in them.
AlthoughPaul’s two uses of “carnal” seem opposed to eachother, he is simply calling his Corinthian readers to liveconsistently with the truths that he expounded in Romans. Christiansare fundamentally not carnal, but spiritual. They should thereforeact like it in a life marked by faith, hope, and especially love(1 Cor. 13). These are the true signs that someone has the HolySpirit, even though the Christian may lapse into attitudes andbehaviors inconsistent with this new identity in Christ.
Carnelian–Aprecious red stone. It is one of the jewels in the high priest’sbreastpiece (Exod. 28:17; 39:10), as well as in the “covering”(similar to the high priest’s breastpiece) for the king ofTyre, who is portrayed as a priest serving in the temple garden ofEden (Ezek. 28:13 NRSV). In the book of Revelation, God, who sits onthe throne, has the appearance of carnelian (4:2–3), andcarnelian is one of the precious stones in the walls of the newJerusalem (21:20).
Someone who is shipwrecked and stranded on land for anextended period of time. In his trial before Porcius Festus, Paulappeals to be tried by the imperial courts in Rome (Acts 25:11–12).Acts 27:6–28:11 tells the story of part of Paul’s journeyto await this trial. A grain transport ship carrying Paul, acenturion, and additional Roman soldiers, as well as numerous otherprisoners, is caught in a severe storm, in fulfillment of Paul’sprophetic warning. The ship eventually runs aground on a sandbar onthe island of Malta, where it is smashed to pieces by the poundingsurf, forcing the passengers to swim to shore using pieces of thewreckage. There they stay as castaways for three months, sustainedthrough the generosity of the island’s chief official, Publius.Paul heals many of the sick in Malta during this time. In 2 Cor.11:25 Paul mentions having experienced three shipwrecks during hisministry.
“Castaway”is also an older translation for the Greek word adokimos, which theNIV variously renders as “depraved” (Rom. 1:28),“disqualified” (1 Cor. 9:27), “rejected”(2 Tim. 3:8), “unfit” (Titus 1:16), and “worthless”(Heb. 6:8). It is also used of those who “fail the test”of Jesus Christ living in them (2 Cor. 13:5–7). In eachinstance the word describes those who live contrary to the gospel.
Simon Peter is the best-known and the most colorful of Jesus’twelve disciples. The name “Peter” means “rock”in Greek. In some biblical texts, he is also called “Cephas,”which is the Aramaic word for “rock” (see esp. John1:42). Despite the ups and downs of Peter’s spiritual life, Godwas able to use him as the foundational apostle for the establishmentof the NT church. Peter first met Jesus immediately after Jesus’baptism, when Peter’s brother, Andrew, heard John the Baptist’sidentification of Jesus as the Lamb of God (John 1:35). In classicmissionary style, “the first thing Andrew did was to find hisbrother Simon and tell him, ‘We have found the Messiah’ ”(John 1:41). Peter’s official call to ministry took placelater, when he was fishing on the Sea of Galilee and Jesus issued thewell-known invitation “Come, follow me, ... and Iwill send you out to fish for people” (Matt. 4:19).
Peterwas the chief spokesman for the disciples at Caesarea Philippi whenJesus asked them, “Who do people say the Son of Man is?”(Matt. 16:13). Peter responded, “You are the Messiah, the Sonof the living God,” an insight given him by God the Father(16:16–17). Jesus promised him, “I tell you that you arePeter [petros], and on this rock [petra] I will build my church, andthe gates of Hades will not overcome it” (16:18). Yet Peteralmost immediately became a “stumbling block” to Jesuswhen he chided Jesus for saying that he must go to Jerusalem andsuffer many things and be killed (16:21–22). Another majorfailure by Peter came with his threefold denial of Jesus after Jesushad warned him, “This very night, before the rooster crows, youwill disown me three times” (Matt. 26:34). Fortunately, therewere tears of repentance, and Peter was forgiven and restored afterJesus’ threefold question (“Do you love me?” [John21:15–19]).
Jesus’death and resurrection, as well as the giving of the Holy Spirit onthe day of Pentecost, had stabilizing effects on Peter. After Jesus’ascension, Peter exercised primary leadership among the otherdisciples during the upper room prayer meetings and the choosing ofthe replacement for Judas (Acts 1). Peter clearly was the publicspokesman for the apostles on the day of Pentecost and a key playerin the establishment of the church in Jerusalem (Acts 2–5), inreceiving the first Samaritan converts (Acts 8:14–25), and inreceiving Cornelius as the first Gentile convert (Acts 10–11).Following Peter’s miraculous deliverance from prison in Acts12, he essentially disappears from recorded history. By the time ofthe Jerusalem council (Acts 15), Peter reappeared briefly, but bythis time he had been replaced by James as the leader of theJerusalem church. Peter apparently continued to live as a missionary(1Cor. 9:5), specifically “to the circumcised”(Gal. 2:7–8), for the rest of his life. Yet Peter was stillhuman, and on one occasion Paul gave him a stinging rebuke (Gal.2:11–21).
Duringhis travels, Peter undoubtedly visited the recipients of his laterletter 1Peter (and possibly 2Peter) in north central AsiaMinor (the regions of “Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia andBithynia” [1Pet. 1:1]), possibly Corinth (1Cor.1:12; 3:22), and, at least by the end of his life, Rome itself.According to tradition, he was put to death by Nero between AD 64 and68, apparently by being crucified upside down (cf. John 21:18–19).Peter’s life is a vivid illustration of the Christian’sfight for faith, God’s gracious provision, and Jesus’intercession on his behalf (“I have prayed for you, Simon, thatyour faith may not fail” [Luke 22:32]).
Headgear signifying honor, victory, power, or authority. Acrown was worn by monarchs in the ancient world to designate theirroyal power, often including a golden headband with precious stonesin it, as well as a turban.
Thereare two important types of crowns in the OT: the priestly and theroyal. A royal crown first appears with Saul (2 Sam. 1:10) andis worn by monarchs after him, including David (2 Sam. 12:30;1 Chron. 20:2; see also Pss. 21:3; 132:18) and Joash (2 Kings11:12; 2 Chron. 23:11). Jeremiah 13:18 warns of a day when theroyal crowns of Judah will be taken away, signifying the monarchy’sfall from power. Esther wears a Persian royal crown (Esther 1:11;2:17), as does Mordecai (8:15).
Thebook of Exodus depicts a crownlike turban to which is affixed agolden “sacred emblem” bearing the inscription “Holyto the Lord,” which is to be worn by the high priest (Exod.28:36–37; 29:6; see also, e.g., 39:30; Lev. 8:9).
Zechariah6:11–14 looks to a future messiah, “the Branch,”who will be both priest and king, thus wearing a priestly and royalcrown. Before his crucifixion, Jesus’ tormentors place on hishead a mock crown made of thorns (Matt. 27:29; Mark 15:17; John 19:2,5). In the book of Revelation both godly and satanic figures wearcrowns: the elders in heaven (4:4, 10), the rider of the white horse(6:2), the locusts from the Abyss (9:7), the woman clothed with thesun (12:1), the dragon and the beast (12:3; 13:1), the one “likea son of man” (14:14), and Christ himself (19:12).
Crownssymbolize human honor (Ps. 8:5; Prov. 4:9; Heb. 2:7, 9) and kinglypower (Ps. 89:39), as well as the loss of such glory (Job 19:9; Ezek.21:26) and its ultimate renewal in eternal life (1 Pet. 5:4).Similarly, crowns often represent eternal salvation (Ps. 149:4; James1:12; Rev. 2:10). Paul even calls his converts his “crown”(Phil. 4:1; 1 Thess. 2:19). The figure of a crownlike garland,the prize for victory in Greco-Roman athletic games, signifies theChristian’s final enjoyment of eternal bliss (1 Cor. 9:25;2 Tim. 2:5; 4:8). Crowns portray divine blessings, including joy(Isa. 35:10; 51:11), love (Ps. 103:4), and beauty, the last of whichsymbolizes divine restoration after judgment (Isa. 61:3). God is evenportrayed as the crown of his people (Isa. 28:5). In addition, acrown stands for several human features, such as wealth (Prov. 14:24)and pride (Isa. 28:1, 3).
To discipline the mind or to exert the body with rigorousphysical activity. In the Greco-Roman world, the typical personworked from sunrise to noon, after which many would go to the localbathhouse to exercise in the palaestra. (Greek students spent half oftheir education engaged in sports.) Activities included wrestling,boxing, and running (see 1Cor. 9:24–26; Gal. 5:7). The NTuses the concept metaphorically for training in the Christian way(1Tim. 4:7–8; Heb. 5:14; 12:11; cf. 2Pet. 2:14) butalso finds value in disciplining the body to curb the insatiabilityof passion (1Cor. 7:9; 9:27).
The Bible contains little information about nonathleticgames, but archaeology has revealed numerous types of board games andchildren’s games in Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Canaan. Althoughactual game pieces and dice have been found, information concerningthe rules of the games is lacking. The Hebrew Bible does not describeanything like Greek or Roman games, but the NT makes numerousreferences to athletic competitions.
Greekgames originated with funeral rites that commemorated heroes. TheIliad provides the earliest reference to Greek games as it describesgames sponsored by Achilles in memory of Patroklos. The games becamean integral part of Greek culture, honored the Greek gods, and werean essential element in a Greek education. Games were held athundreds of local festivals across the Mediterranean, but the fourPanhellenic games were the most prestigious. The games wereaccompanied by a sacred truce and held in sanctuaries. The Greekstrained and competed in the nude. Initially, running was the onlycompetition, but by the second century AD Pausanius enumeratedtwenty-four contests, all of which were individual competitions. Thespecific contests varied from place to place, but the main eventsincluded running, chariot racing, long jumping, javelin throwing,discus throwing (2Macc. 4:14), wrestling, boxing (1Cor.9:26), and the pankration, which was a form of all-out fighting. Someof the games included musical competitions. The prize, a wreath, wasawarded only for first prize, and the winner of all four Panhellenicgames was the periodonikēs. The victor returned home to a hero’swelcome, fame, and gifts. Some examples of cheating and bribery havesurvived, and those caught were fined.
TheOlympic games, established in 776 BC, were the oldest and mostprestigious of the Panhellenic games. They were held every four yearsin the sanctuary complex of Zeus in Olympia. The stadium wastypically about 600 feet long, but Olympia’s was the longest,at about 630 feet, because of the tradition that Heracles had laidout the course. The remaining Panhellenic games were establishedabout two hundred years later, in the sixth century BC. The Pythiangames were held at the sanctuary of Apollo in Delphi. The Nemeangames were held at the sanctuary of Zeus in Argos. The Isthmian gameswere administered by Corinth at the sanctuary of Poseidon.
TheRomans preferred gladiatorial games and wild-game hunts over Greekgames. Nevertheless, Romans were allowed to participate in thePanhellenic games. In fact, the emperors Tiberius and Neroparticipated. The Roman games were wildly popular with the people. Bythe second century AD, 135 days of games were held each year in Rome.The Circus Maximus was the largest venue, allowing up to two hundredthousand spectators to attend the chariot races. The Colosseum, thelargest amphitheater in the Roman Empire, was built in AD 80,financed with spoils taken during the First Jewish Revolt. It heldfifty thousand spectators for the gladiatorial games. Prisoners ofwar, slaves, and criminals condemned to die were forced to fight asgladiators and face wild beasts. Gladiatorial games were heldthroughout the empire. Herod the Great threw condemned criminals towild animals in his amphitheater near Jerusalem in order to delightthe spectators (Josephus, Ant. 15.273–75). Paul refers tofighting wild beasts in Ephesus (1Cor. 15:32), though this islikely a metaphor for his spiritual opponents. Roman-style gameshonored Rome and became a symbol of loyalty to the Roman Empire.
Jewishviews toward Greek and Roman games varied. Some Jews, especiallythose in the Diaspora, embraced the games as spectators andparticipants (2Macc. 4:9–14). During the reign ofAntiochusIV, some Jewish youth participated in the gymnasium inJerusalem. They even underwent surgery to cover the signs of theircircumcision (1Macc. 1:12–15). Herod the Great builtamphitheaters, stadiums, and hippodromes throughout his kingdom, andPhilo of Alexandria frequented the games. However, the authors of 1–2Maccabees criticize the priests for neglecting their duties byattending the games. Furthermore, the religious association of thegames led many conservative Jews to oppose the games.
BecausePaul and his audiences were familiar with Greek and Roman games, hedrew upon them as analogies to the Christian life. During Paul’seighteen-month ministry in Corinth, the nearby Isthmian games wereplayed. Through references to training and competition, Pauldemonstrates the need to be disciplined, focused, determined as anathlete (1Cor. 9:24–27; 2Tim. 4:7; cf. Heb. 12:1).In contrast to the wreath won by Greek athletes, Christians strivefor an eternal prize and a crown of righteousness (1Cor. 9:27;Phil. 3:14; 2Tim. 4:7–8).
The harvest was a major event on the yearly calendar ofIsrael’s agrarian society (Lev. 25:11; Judg. 15:1; Ruth 1:22;2Sam. 21:9–10). Life was dependent on the harvest. As aresult, God set certain rules with respect to the harvest to help theIsraelites keep proper priorities. Every seven years and everyfiftieth year, the people were to give the land a rest (Exod. 23:10;Lev. 25:20–22). The people were to rest on the Sabbath, evenduring the harvesttime (Exod. 34:21). Some portions of crops were tobe left in the field so that the poor might have food (Lev. 19:9;23:22; Deut. 24:21). The people were to acknowledge God as the sourceof the harvest by offering the first of the produce (Lev. 23:10).Celebrating the harvest was commanded (Exod. 23:16; Deut. 16:15; Isa.9:3). Planning for the harvest was a mark of wisdom (Prov. 6:8; 10:5;20:4). Even as a good harvest was the blessing of God (Ps. 67:6; Isa.62:9), so a bad harvest was a curse from God and the plight of a fool(1Sam. 12:17; Job 5:5; Prov. 26:1; Isa. 18:4–5; Jer.8:13, 20; Joel 3:12; Mic. 6:15). Failure to acknowledge God for theharvest was a sin (Jer. 5:24).
Theharvest is often used in Scripture as an analogy. The prophets talkabout the negative harvest of idolatry (Isa. 17:11). Israel is calledthe firstfruits of God’s harvest (Jer. 2:3). Hosea uses theidea of harvest to indicate that God’s people have a future(Hos. 6:11). In the Gospels, the harvest is used as an analogy forthose needing to hear the good news (Matt. 9:37–38), for theend times (Matt. 13:24–30; Rev. 14:15), and for a lesson aboutunfaithful leadership (Matt. 21:33–46; 25:24). In the remainderof the NT, the harvest analogy usually refers to Christian growth andsalvation (Rom. 1:13; 1Cor. 9:10–11; 2Cor. 9:10;Gal. 6:9; Heb. 12:11; James 3:18).
Scopeand Uses of the Word “Hope”
Attimes simply indicating a wish (2Cor. 11:1), in the Bible theword “hope” most often designates a disposition of soul,the grounds for one’s hope, or the outcome for which one hopes.
Thosewhom God has helped and delivered expect to see God’s poweragain when future needs arise, knowing that in God there are reasonsfor hope. Mere optimism assumes that bad circ*mstances will improvewith the passing of time. In contrast, hope assumes that God isfaithful and is convinced that he is able to bring about his goodpurpose (Isa. 44:1–8). So at its core, biblical hope is hope inGod, rooted in God’s covenant faithfulness (Ps. 62:5–8;Jer. 14:8; 17:13; Rom. 4:18; 5:1–5). Hope trusts God in thepresent and lives even now on the strength of God’s futureaccomplishments (Gal. 5:5; Heb. 11:1).
Bothof the main OT words for “hope” (Heb. roots qwh and ykhl)are at times translated “wait.” By definition, hope meansthat God’s promised outcome has not arrived, and that some timewill pass before it does. But that time is filled with a sense ofwaiting on God, often with a deep ache of longing for God to act (seePss. 25:16–21; 39:4–7; Isa. 40:28–31; Lam.3:19–24).
Theinner disposition of hope may be seriously threatened by injusticeand other devastating life experiences, as reflected in Job 6:8–13;14:19; 19:10. The refrain of Pss. 42:5–6, 11; 43:5 is apsalmist’s self-exhortation to hope amid oppressive anddepressing circ*mstances: “Why, my soul, are you downcast? Whyso disturbed within me? Put your hope in God, for I will yet praisehim, my Savior and my God.” Words for “hope”function similarly in other psalms of lament (Pss. 9:18; 31:24; 71:5,14; cf. Mic. 7:7).
TheOT usually locates individual hope within the horizon and limits ofthis world. One hopes for outcomes that may be realized in one’sown lifetime; indeed, when life ends, hope ends (Prov. 11:7; 24:20;Eccles. 9:4; Isa. 38:18). Proverbs that mention hope regardingsomeone’s character development show an underlying concern thatGod’s purposes be vindicated in one’s life (e.g., Prov.19:18; 26:12). When used in conjunction with Israel as a whole, hopelooks to a more distant future and coming generations.
Inthe NT, hope is closely associated with Christ and his saving work.Christians now live by hope in Christ (Eph. 1:12; 1Pet. 1:3;3:15); indeed, he is “Christ Jesus our hope” (1Tim.1:1), and his future appearing is “the blessed hope”(Titus 2:13). Thus, hope refers to eschatological glory (2Cor.3:11–12; Eph. 1:18). It is “the hope of the resurrection”(Acts 23:6; cf. 24:15; 26:6–9), our transformation intoChrist’s likeness (1John 3:1–3). That expectationstimulates various hopes for God’s plans to be realized inone’s own or others’ lives (1Cor. 9:10, 13; Phil.2:19, 23; 2Tim. 2:25; 2John 12). So hope is namedrepeatedly as an essential Christian attribute (Rom. 12:12; 15:4, 13;1Cor. 13:13).
Hopeas a Biblical Theme
Withthe God of hope as its covenant Lord, hope is a defining reality forIsrael and a persistent theme in the historical books (e.g., 2Sam.23:1–7; 2Kings 25:27–30). Psalmists find hopeeither in continuity with present structures (Ps. 37) or in drasticchange (Pss. 33; 82), such as personal or corporate restoration.
Judgmentdominates the message of the preexilic prophets, although expressionsof hope are also found. But Judah’s downfall in 587/586 BCmarks a turning point in prophetic hope. While preexilic prophecybases its indictment, appeal, and warning in the exodus and thecovenant, Jeremiah and Ezekiel tend to redirect hope and expectationto a new work of salvation that God will accomplish through and afterthe judgment of exile (e.g., Jer. 31:31–34; Ezek. 11:16–21;cf. Isa. 43:18–19). In the wake of Judah’s destruction,these prophets grasp a remarkable new vision of grace and promise.Restoration will be personal as well as national; forgiveness of sinwill enable obedience to God’s law, now to be found written ontheir hearts.
Duringthe exile, collection of Israel’s sacred texts enabled theshattered community to sustain identity and hope. Postexilic prophecyis often “text prophecy” that arises from reflection uponand reapplication of written prophecies, psalms, and other scripturaltexts. For example, the book of Zechariah (especially chaps. 9–14)alludes to many earlier writings and also moves toward apocalypticl*terature, contributing dramatic new imagery of God’s conquestof evil to establish his cosmic reign and fulfill his covenant.Messianic hopes rose throughout this period, fueled by earlierprophecies (e.g., Isa. 9; 11; 65:17; Jer. 23:5; Mic. 5:2).
Ifthe OT gives occasional hints of an afterlife, this hope becomesmanifest in the NT (2Tim. 1:10). Jesus promises the thief onthe cross fellowship after death (Luke 23:43). For Paul, “todepart and be with Christ” is such a vivid hope that “todie is gain” (Phil. 1:21–24). Such texts imply that deathushers the believer into Christ’s presence. Yet thisintermediate state is not the whole picture. We are saved in hope ofthe redemption of our bodies (Rom. 8:23–25)—ourresurrection from the dead and entry into a new glorified, bodilyexistence (1Cor. 15; Phil. 3:20–21).
Christis judge as well as savior (Matt. 16:27; 25:31–46; Acts 17:31;Rom. 2:16), and the NT anticipates final judgment of all persons andpowers arrayed against God, including sin and death (1Cor.15:24–26; 2Thess. 1:5–10). Christian hope involvesnothing less than the return and full revelation of Jesus Christ, theresurrection of the dead, and the renewal of all creation (1Thess.4:13–18; Rev. 21–22)—the complete vindication ofGod’s rule, secured already in Christ. Then God’sredeemed people will see his face and live in his presence forever(Matt. 5:8; Jude 24; Rev. 22:4). A vision of this future enables usto press on with hope, stretching toward what is to come (Phil.3:13–14).
The property or state of not being subject to decay ordeterioration, and thus heavenly. “Imperishability” (Gk.aphtharsia) and immortality are closely linked; note that the Greekadjective for “imperishable,” aphthartos, can betranslated “immortal” (e.g., Rom. 1:23). Often the Biblecontrasts the imperishable with the perishable. Thus, Paul contraststhe perishable earthly body with the imperishable resurrection body(1Cor. 15:42, 50–55) and an imperishable reward with aperishable reward (1Cor. 9:25 NRSV, NET). Peter explains thatthe believer’s new birth is “not of perishable seed, butof imperishable, through the living and enduring word of God”(1Pet. 1:23).
The property or state of not being subject to decay ordeterioration, and thus heavenly. “Imperishability” (Gk.aphtharsia) and immortality are closely linked; note that the Greekadjective for “imperishable,” aphthartos, can betranslated “immortal” (e.g., Rom. 1:23). Often the Biblecontrasts the imperishable with the perishable. Thus, Paul contraststhe perishable earthly body with the imperishable resurrection body(1Cor. 15:42, 50–55) and an imperishable reward with aperishable reward (1Cor. 9:25 NRSV, NET). Peter explains thatthe believer’s new birth is “not of perishable seed, butof imperishable, through the living and enduring word of God”(1Pet. 1:23).
The property or state of not being subject to decay ordeterioration, and thus heavenly. “Imperishability” (Gk.aphtharsia) and immortality are closely linked; note that the Greekadjective for “imperishable,” aphthartos, can betranslated “immortal” (e.g., Rom. 1:23). Often the Biblecontrasts the imperishable with the perishable. Thus, Paul contraststhe perishable earthly body with the imperishable resurrection body(1Cor. 15:42, 50–55) and an imperishable reward with aperishable reward (1Cor. 9:25 NRSV, NET). Peter explains thatthe believer’s new birth is “not of perishable seed, butof imperishable, through the living and enduring word of God”(1Pet. 1:23).
The property or state of not being subject to decay ordeterioration, and thus heavenly. “Imperishability” (Gk.aphtharsia) and immortality are closely linked; note that the Greekadjective for “imperishable,” aphthartos, can betranslated “immortal” (e.g., Rom. 1:23). Often the Biblecontrasts the imperishable with the perishable. Thus, Paul contraststhe perishable earthly body with the imperishable resurrection body(1Cor. 15:42, 50–55) and an imperishable reward with aperishable reward (1Cor. 9:25 NRSV, NET). Peter explains thatthe believer’s new birth is “not of perishable seed, butof imperishable, through the living and enduring word of God”(1Pet. 1:23).
Jesus’ brothers are mentioned several times in theGospels, Acts, and the Pauline Epistles. In Mark 6:3 (see also Matt.13:55–56) four brothers are named, and sisters are mentioned,though the name or number of sisters is not given. The people ofNazareth are offended by Jesus’ preaching in the synagogue andexpress surprise that Jesus, given the dramatic claims that he hasmade about himself in his sermon there (see Luke 4:16–30), isthe son and brother of local villagers (Mary and her sons James,Joses [named “Joseph” in Matthew], Judas, and Simon). Inthe crucifixion scene in Mark, one of the women present is identifiedas “Mary the mother of James the younger and of Joseph [NIVmg.: “Greek Joses”]” (Mark 15:40). It is unlikely,however, that this is Jesus’ mother and brothers, since itwould be strange to identify Mary as the mother of these twolesser-known siblings rather than of Jesus himself.
InMark 3:32–35 Jesus redefines what it means to be his brother,sister, or mother in the kingdom of God in response to being notifiedthat his earthly mother and brothers, who at this point in time didnot understand his mission (see 3:21), are waiting for him outsidethe house in Capernaum. Although Mary and Jesus’ brothersappear to have traveled around Galilee with him (see John 2:12),John’s Gospel makes explicit the brothers’ unbelief(7:2–10), which is only implicit in Matthew and Mark. Acts 1:14shows the dramatic reversal that has taken place in the response toJesus by his brothers after the resurrection. Mary and Jesus’brothers are gathered together with the entire body of Jesus’disciples in prayer, fellowship, and teaching.
James(apparently Jesus’ oldest sibling) became a key leader in theJerusalem church (Acts 12:17; 21:18) and pronounced the decision atthe Jerusalem council (Acts 15:13). He is also traditionallyidentified as the author of the NT letter that bears his name (James1:1). Another NT letter may also have been penned by a brother ofJesus, since Jude identifies himself as “a brother of James”(Jude 1), a probable reference to this same James.
In1 Cor. 9:5 Paul argues (through a rhetorical question) thatChristian missionaries have the right to take “a believingwife” along with them in their work, just as the other apostlesand Jesus’ brothers had done. Finally, while recounting hisfirst trip to Jerusalem after his conversion, Paul mentions a meetingwith James, “the Lord’s brother” (Gal. 1:19).
Accordingto the Jewish historian Josephus, Jesus’ brother James died amartyr’s death at the hands of the Jewish high priest Ananus(Ant. 20.197–200).
Both the OT and the NT view wealth as ultimately a result ofGod’s blessing (Prov. 10:22). Abraham shows the right attitudeby refusing to accept plunder from the king of Sodom, recognizing Godas the sole source of his riches (Gen. 14:23). Solomon’s wealthwas seen as God’s favor (1Kings 3:13). Wealth and richesare said to be in the house of persons “who fear the Lord”(Ps. 112:1–3). However, material success alone is notnecessarily an indication of God’s approval, nor is poverty asign of God’s disfavor. Fundamentally, neither poverty norwealth can be superficially tied to divine displeasure or favor.
Balancedview.The Bible articulates a balanced view of wealth. It warns againsthaving an arrogant attitude by failing to acknowledge that the sourceof wealth is God (Deut. 8:17–18). There is danger in trustingin riches (Pss. 52:7; 62:10). The rich are charged not to be haughty,and to set their hopes not on uncertain riches but rather on God(1Tim. 6:17–18). The love of money is described as theroot of all kinds of evil (1Tim. 6:9–10), and it istherefore extremely difficult for a rich person to enter the kingdomof God (Matt. 19:24). The foolishness of materialism, making richesthe center of one’s life, is shown in the parable of thewealthy farmer (Luke 12:15–21). Instead of monetary greed, thespirit of contentment is commended, because even if lacking on thematerial level, one still has the Lord (Luke 12:15; Phil. 4:11; Heb.13:5). Material possessions should be gained rightly; effort anddiligence are required (Gen. 3:19; Prov. 10:4). Obtaining wealththrough dishonesty and ill-gotten gains is denounced and condemned(Prov. 11:26; 13:11; Jer. 17:11; Mic. 6:12).
God-centeredperspective.Wealth and material possessions are to be viewed from a God-centeredperspective. God is the one who provides everything; thus we shouldtrust him for our daily needs (Matt. 6:25–34; Luke 11:3). Job’sconfession in a time of loss, “The Lord gave and the Lord hastaken away; may the name of the Lord be praised,” shows anadmirable attitude to emulate (Job 1:21). God is the owner of allthings, and we are simply stewards and administrators of God’swealth. We need to remember that one day we will be accountable forthe use of our wealth (1Cor. 10:31). Jesus teaches us to seekthe kingdom of God first rather than his material blessings (Luke12:31–33). Anything that draws us away from serving God shouldbe avoided. We cannot serve both God and mammon (Matt. 6:24). Ourtreasures are to be in heaven, meaning that our central focus shouldbe on matters pertaining to the kingdom: “Where your treasureis, there your heart will be also” (Luke 12:32–34).
Responsibilityand generosity.With the possession of wealth comes the duty to give generously tothose in need (Prov. 11:24; 28:27). Prosperity is given as a means todo good; thus we ought to be rich in good deeds (1Tim. 6:18).Although it is a duty of the covenant community to take care of theneedy in the OT, it still emphasizes the voluntary heart (Deut.15:5–11). In 2Cor. 9:7, Paul presents the principle ofgiving in the NT: “Each of you should give what you havedecided in your heart to give, not reluctantly or under compulsion,for God loves a cheerful giver.” It should be not an exactionbut a willing gift (9:5).
TheChristian should emulate Jesus: “Though he was rich, yet for[our] sake he became poor, so that [we] through his poverty mightbecome rich” (2Cor. 8:9). Therefore, material offeringsto Christ should not be a burden (1Cor. 9:11). Sacrificialgiving is an expression of love to the Lord (2Cor. 9:12). Italso generates thanksgiving to God from those who receive it (2Cor.9:11). Worldly wealth should also be used for evangelistic purposes(Luke 16:8). If we are faithful in the use of money, we can betrusted with the kingdom’s spiritual riches (Luke 16:12–13).Although riches do not have eternal value in themselves, their properuse has eternal consequences (Luke 12:33; 1Tim. 6:19). One ofthe qualifications of a church overseer is to be free from the loveof money, and a deacon must not pursue dishonest gain (1Tim.3:3, 8). A good name is to be chosen over great riches (Prov. 22:1).James condemns as sinful the attitude of favoring the wealthy overthe poor. Nonpreferential love is the answer to prejudicialfavoritism (James 2:1–9).
Placed over an animal’s mouth, a muzzle keeps theanimal from biting or eating. The Mosaic code prohibited the muzzlingof an ox while it was threshing grain, thus allowing it to eat bothgrain and straw (Deut. 25:4), which demonstrates humane care ofanimals within the law. Paul used the term metaphorically toillustrate that pastors/elders are worthy of being cared for by thechurch (1Cor. 9:9; 1Tim. 5:18).
Simon Peter is the best-known and the most colorful of Jesus’twelve disciples. The name “Peter” means “rock”in Greek. In some biblical texts, he is also called “Cephas,”which is the Aramaic word for “rock” (see esp. John1:42). Despite the ups and downs of Peter’s spiritual life, Godwas able to use him as the foundational apostle for the establishmentof the NT church. Peter first met Jesus immediately after Jesus’baptism, when Peter’s brother, Andrew, heard John the Baptist’sidentification of Jesus as the Lamb of God (John 1:35). In classicmissionary style, “the first thing Andrew did was to find hisbrother Simon and tell him, ‘We have found the Messiah’ ”(John 1:41). Peter’s official call to ministry took placelater, when he was fishing on the Sea of Galilee and Jesus issued thewell-known invitation “Come, follow me, ... and Iwill send you out to fish for people” (Matt. 4:19).
Peterwas the chief spokesman for the disciples at Caesarea Philippi whenJesus asked them, “Who do people say the Son of Man is?”(Matt. 16:13). Peter responded, “You are the Messiah, the Sonof the living God,” an insight given him by God the Father(16:16–17). Jesus promised him, “I tell you that you arePeter [petros], and on this rock [petra] I will build my church, andthe gates of Hades will not overcome it” (16:18). Yet Peteralmost immediately became a “stumbling block” to Jesuswhen he chided Jesus for saying that he must go to Jerusalem andsuffer many things and be killed (16:21–22). Another majorfailure by Peter came with his threefold denial of Jesus after Jesushad warned him, “This very night, before the rooster crows, youwill disown me three times” (Matt. 26:34). Fortunately, therewere tears of repentance, and Peter was forgiven and restored afterJesus’ threefold question (“Do you love me?” [John21:15–19]).
Jesus’death and resurrection, as well as the giving of the Holy Spirit onthe day of Pentecost, had stabilizing effects on Peter. After Jesus’ascension, Peter exercised primary leadership among the otherdisciples during the upper room prayer meetings and the choosing ofthe replacement for Judas (Acts 1). Peter clearly was the publicspokesman for the apostles on the day of Pentecost and a key playerin the establishment of the church in Jerusalem (Acts 2–5), inreceiving the first Samaritan converts (Acts 8:14–25), and inreceiving Cornelius as the first Gentile convert (Acts 10–11).Following Peter’s miraculous deliverance from prison in Acts12, he essentially disappears from recorded history. By the time ofthe Jerusalem council (Acts 15), Peter reappeared briefly, but bythis time he had been replaced by James as the leader of theJerusalem church. Peter apparently continued to live as a missionary(1Cor. 9:5), specifically “to the circumcised”(Gal. 2:7–8), for the rest of his life. Yet Peter was stillhuman, and on one occasion Paul gave him a stinging rebuke (Gal.2:11–21).
Duringhis travels, Peter undoubtedly visited the recipients of his laterletter 1Peter (and possibly 2Peter) in north central AsiaMinor (the regions of “Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia andBithynia” [1Pet. 1:1]), possibly Corinth (1Cor.1:12; 3:22), and, at least by the end of his life, Rome itself.According to tradition, he was put to death by Nero between AD 64 and68, apparently by being crucified upside down (cf. John 21:18–19).Peter’s life is a vivid illustration of the Christian’sfight for faith, God’s gracious provision, and Jesus’intercession on his behalf (“I have prayed for you, Simon, thatyour faith may not fail” [Luke 22:32]).
An award to the victor in the Greek games. The judge whoassigned the prize at the games gave a literal crown, a garland ofbay, olive, or pine. These perishable wreaths, coveted by theathletes of Greece and Rome (1Cor. 9:24–25), stand incontrast to Paul’s use of “prize” (Gk. brabeion) asa metaphor for the imperishable heavenly reward for Christiancharacter (Phil. 3:14). Another Greek word sometimes rendered as“prize” (harpagmos) refers to “a thing to begrasped” (Phil. 2:6 ESV, NASB). Christ did not deem it an actof usurpation to claim equality with God, for such equality was hisinherent right. Christ did not regard equality with God as a thing tobe clutched greedily, but waived his rights.
Although the events narrated in the NT took place during atime of peace in the Roman Empire, Roman soldiers were a fixture inJudea, and they appear in a number of stories: the centurion whoseservant Jesus healed (Matt. 8:5–13; Luke 7:1–10); thesoldiers who tortured and executed Jesus (Matt. 27; Mark 15; Luke 23;John 19) and guarded his tomb (Matt. 28:4); the God-fearing centurionCornelius (Acts10); and the Roman garrison in Jerusalem (Acts21:27–40). Soldiers also guarded prisoners (Acts 12:1–10;23; 27:1–2, 31–32, 42–44; 28:16). In several placesPaul writes of Christian workers as soldiers (1Cor. 9:7; Eph.6:10–17; Phil. 2:25; 2Tim. 2:3–4; Philem. 1:2).
An occupation or profession is the usual work or business inwhich a person engages for the sake of earning a living. In biblicaltimes, family or social standing most often determined occupation.This was particularly true for occupations tied to land, such asplanting crops and raising animals, since land in ancient Israel waspassed down within the tribe, normally from fathers to sons (Josh.14:9; Ezek. 46:18). Sometimes daughters also received a share in thefamily inheritance (Josh. 17:6). Most people gained their livelihoodfrom their family’s land, and those who did not have land hiredthemselves out to work for wages (Deut. 24:14). A son normallylearned his trade from his father (Gen. 47:3; 2Kings 4:18;Matt. 4:21) and continued in that occupation unless called into God’sservice (1Kings 19:19–21; Jer. 1:5; Matt. 4:22).
Cicero,writing around the time of the NT, considered occupations such as taxcollector, laborer, and fisherman to be vulgar. Conversely,professions such as teacher, doctor, and wholesale trader were morehonorable, with landowner being the most respectable and profitableprofession (Off. 1.42).
Agricultureand Farming
Farmingis the earliest recorded occupation in the Bible, as the first manwas called to work and keep the garden (Gen. 2:15). Even after theexile from Eden because of sin, Adam worked the ground for food, asdid Cain, his firstborn son (Gen. 3:17–18; 4:2). The openingchapters of the Bible establish a fundamental link between “man”(’adam) and the “ground” (’adamah). After theflood, Noah established himself as a “man of the soil”(’ish ha’adamah) by planting a vineyard (Gen. 9:20). KingUzziah “loved the soil” (’oheb ’adamah) andso employed people to work in his fields and vineyards (2Chron.26:10).
Goddemonstrated his covenant commitment to Isaac by blessing him with anincredible harvest (Gen. 26:12), and he promised to prosper Israel’sfarms if the people obeyed him (Deut. 28:4) and to curse the fruit oftheir ground if they disobeyed (Deut. 28:18). The OT ideal was foreveryone to live “under their own vine and under their own figtree” (1Kings 4:25; Mic. 4:4). According to Prov. 28:19,the diligent farmer would have abundant food.
Jesus’parables frequently employed agricultural imagery that would havebeen readily understandable in first-century Palestine, where manypeople were farmers (cf. Mark 4:1–9; 12:1–11) and someowned land (Acts 4:34). The people living around Jerusalem at thistime engaged in agriculture, soil cultivation, and cattle raising(Let. Aris. 107–112).
Herdingand Hunting
Herdinganimals is the second-oldest occupation recorded in Scripture (afterfarming), and raising flocks and herds continued to be one of themost common and important professions throughout biblical times. Abelis the first “keeper of sheep” in the Bible (Gen. 4:2NRSV). Several generations later, Jabal pioneered the nomadic herdinglifestyle (Gen. 4:20). The patriarchs were shepherds (Gen. 47:3), aswere Moses (Exod. 3:1), David (1Sam. 17:34), and many others inthe OT. Josephus acknowledged that “feeding of sheep was theemployment of our forefathers in the most ancient ages”(Ag.Ap. 1.91). While men typically worked as shepherds andherdsmen, the occupation was also open to women, such as Rachel,whose fathers owned sheep (Gen. 29:9). Shepherds were present atJesus’ birth (Luke 2:8–20), and Jesus’ teachingsuggests that shepherding was a common occupation in Palestine (cf.Matt. 18:12; John 10:1–30).
Manypeople in biblical times hunted, either for food, sport, orprotection. The first recorded hunter is Nimrod, “a mightyhunter before the Lord” (Gen. 10:9). Ishmael was “anexpert with the bow” (Gen. 21:20 NRSV), while Esau was “askillful hunter, a man of the open country” who brought backwild game for food (25:27–28). The name of Pokereth-Hazzebaim,included in the genealogy of Solomon’s servants in Ezra 2:57,reflects his occupation as a “gazelle catcher” (cf.1Kings 4:23).
Buildersand Craftsmen
Cainwas the first person in the Bible to build a city (Gen. 4:17), andhis descendant Tubal-Cain was the first metalworker (4:22). Nimrodbuilt a number of cities (10:11–12), and the beginning ofNimrod’s kingdom was Babel (10:10), where the people gatheredtogether to build a city with brick (11:3). Builders in Mesopotamiaused baked brick and asphalt, while Israelite builders usuallypreferred the more readily available stone and mortar. After Joseph’sdeath, Israel was conscripted into forced labor in Egypt, whichinvolved building cities of brick and mortar (Exod. 1:11).
Therole of craftsmen in the construction of the tabernacle wasparticularly significant. Bezalel and Oholiab were “skilledworkers and designers” empowered by God for work on thetabernacle (Exod. 35:35). They engaged in “all kinds ofcrafts,” including artistic metalworking, masonry, carpentry,and weaving (Exod. 31:4–5; 38:23).
Kingsin Israel often commissioned important building projects (1Kings12:25; 15:22; 16:24; 2Chron. 26:9; Josephus, J.W. 1.401–2).Carpenters and stonemasons worked on David’s palace (2Sam.5:11). Solomon conscripted laborers to build the temple and alsoemployed carriers, stonecutters, craftsmen, and foremen to supervisethe work (1Kings 5:13–18). After the Babylonian exile,many Israelites were involved in rebuilding the temple and the wallof Jerusalem, which had been destroyed (Ezra 3:8; Neh. 4:16–18).These projects, directed by Zerubbabel and Nehemiah, utilized masons,carpenters, and other workers (Ezra 3:7).
Jesusis referred to as a tektōn (Mark 6:3) and as the son of a tektōn(Matt. 13:55), with tektōn usually translated “carpenter”by English versions. However,recent scholarshiphas demonstrated that Jesus was likely a builder, not a carpenter inthe modern sense of the term. In the LXX, the word tektōntypically translates a Hebrew word, kharash, used broadly to refer tocraftsmen working with stone, wood, or metal.
Musicians
Thefirst musician recorded in Scripture is Jubal, “the father ofall who play the stringed instruments and pipes” (Gen. 4:21).Musicians performed a variety of roles in ancient society, as they dotoday. Singers and instrumentalists were employed to celebratefestive occasions, often to provide accompaniment for dancing (Gen.31:27; Luke 15:25), to soothe the sick or distressed (1Sam.16:16), and to express lamentation (Job 30:31).
Musiciansplayed an important role in leading God’s people in worship.The “director of music” is mentioned in the headings offifty-five psalms and Hab. 3:19. The most famous musician inScripture is David, “the singer of Israel’s psalms”(2Sam. 23:1 GW), who played the harp (1Sam. 16:18) andwrote or inspired at least seventy-three canonical psalms. Solomonwas also a notable songwriter and lover of music (1Kings 4:32).David appointed many Levites as singers and musicians to lead Israelin worship (1Chron. 15:16; 23:5). The musicians played lyres,harps, cymbals, and trumpets (2Chron. 5:12).
Government,Politics, and Military
Beforethe monarchy, there were no formal government offices. Under Moses, agroup of seventy elders in Israel served as leaders and officials,and these men were to carry out Moses’ decrees and judge thepeople on most matters (Exod. 18:20–22; Num. 11:16). AfterJoshua’s death, God raised up judges to rescue Israel fromforeign enemies and lead the people (Judg. 2:16) until the time ofSamuel, when Saul was made king (1Sam. 11:15).
Kingsin Israel employed various officials. In 2Sam. 8:16–18,Joab is listed first among David’s officials, which suggeststhat the military commander was second in authority after the king.Under Solomon, the leader of the army is called “commander inchief” (1Kings 4:4). The royal cabinet included a numberof key advisers, including the recorder, the secretary, and the“confidant” of the king (cf. 2Sam. 16:16). The OTdoes not specify the precise roles of these officials. The recorderwas among the highest governmental positions and served as a royalcounselor. In Hebrew, mazkir (“recorder”) is a cognatenoun to the verb zkr (“to remember”), which suggests thatthis official may have managed and preserved public records (2Kings18:18; Isa. 36:22). The main task of the king’s secretary orscribe (sop̱er)was to write down (sapar) official state documents (2Sam.8:17), and he advised the king and also provided financial oversight(2Kings 12:10). Recorders and secretaries apparently were welleducated and multilingual, as was the palace administrator (2Kings18:18, 26). Solomon’s officials included supervisors of thepalace and the forced labor, as well as governors who suppliedprovisions for the king’s household (1Kings 4:6–7).The OT mentions cupbearers in Israel’s government and in otheradministrations (Gen. 40:1; 1Kings 10:5; Neh. 1:11). Thecupbearer served as the royal wine taster; he protected the king frombeing poisoned and had direct access to the monarch.
Inthe Roman Empire, the emperor was absolute ruler (1Pet. 2:17),with the senate next in authority. Proconsuls held judicial andmilitary authority over larger provinces (Acts 18:12), prefects(governors) administered smaller provinces (Matt. 27:2), withtetrarchs over one-fourth of a province (Luke 3:1).
Christiansin NT times engaged in civil service. Erastus was a financial officerin Corinth (Rom. 16:23), and he may be the same Erastus commemoratedin an inscription from this period who held the office of aedile. Theproconsul Sergius Paulus (Acts 13:7); Manaen, a close friend of HerodAntipas (Acts 13:1); and members of Caesar’s household (Phil.4:22) were also Christian public leaders.
Tradeand Economics
Fromearliest times, people have exchanged goods and property. WhenAbraham purchased Ephron’s field, his silver was measured“according to the weight current among the merchants”(Gen. 23:16), which suggests that a recognized system of publictrading was in place during the time of the patriarchs. Traders ofcommodities such as spices traveled along caravan routes betweensouthern Arabia and Egypt, and these traders often acquired slavesalong the way (Gen. 37:28). Solomon employed royal merchants to buyand sell goods (1Kings 10:28).
Inthe first century, Jews were engaged broadly in economic life aslandowners, artisans, merchants, traders, bankers, and slaves.Several of Jesus’ disciples were fishermen (Matt. 4:18). Lukewas a physician, a well-educated and respectable professional (Col.4:14). Lydia was a dealer in purple cloth (Acts 16:14). Paul, Aquila,and Priscilla worked as tentmakers (Acts 18:3). In the Roman Empire,commerce and pagan religion often intermingled. Merchants oftenformed trade guilds, where membership sometimes required religiousand moral compromise. In Ephesus, silversmiths and craftsmen inrelated trades turned significant profit through their connectionswith the local Artemis cult (Acts 19:24–27).
Jesusfrequently spent time with tax collectors, such as Levi (also called“Matthew”) (Matt. 9:9; Mark 2:14). Tax collectors were adespised group because often they became wealthy by taking advantageof the Roman taxation system, which allowed them to charge commissionon taxes collected (Luke 19:2, 8). Jesus’ parable of thetalents references bankers who offered interest on deposits collected(Matt. 25:27), and Rev. 3:17–18 alludes to the fact thatLaodicea was a financial center with a significant banking system.
Servantsand Slaves
Inthe OT, ’ebed most often designates a slave or servant, whoseoccupation involves work (’abad ) as a subordinate. Someservants held very important positions in their master’shousehold (Gen. 24:2), while many others toiled in hard labor (Job7:2). Israelites were not to enslave their kinfolk, but they couldtake slaves from other nations. Fellow Israelites who became poorcould serve as hired workers, but they were to be released along withtheir children at the Jubilee because God had brought Israel out fromEgyptian slavery and they belonged to God as his servants (Lev.25:39–46).
Slavesin the Roman world were property like goods or cattle, possessed byanother (Dio Chrysostom, 2Serv. lib. 24). Unlike modern slaverypractices, race played no factor in the Roman institution of slavery.Slaves were kidnapped and sold in NT times (1Tim. 1:10; Rev.18:13), but the majority of slaves were so by birth. The mostprominent slave in the NT is Onesimus, for whom Paul intercedes withhis master, Philemon (Philem. 10, 16). Believing slaves were to obeytheir earthly masters “as slaves of Christ” (Eph. 6:5–6),but the NT stressed the equality of slave and free in Christ (Gal.3:28). Paul called himself a “servant [doulos] of Christ Jesus”(Rom. 1:1).
ReligiousService
MostIsraelites engaged in professional religious service were Levites(Num. 3:12), including Moses, Aaron, and the priests in Aaron’sline (Exod. 6:19–20; 35:19). The priests offered sacrifices toGod on behalf of the people (Heb. 5:1). Under the priests’direction, the Levites were charged with caring for the tabernacleand its furnishings (Num. 1:49; 1Chron. 23:32) and carrying theark of the covenant (1Chron. 15:2). They were set apart toserve in God’s presence (Deut. 18:7) and to lead the people inworship (2Chron. 5:12). Further, priests often played animportant advisory role to Israel’s kings (2Sam. 8:17;1Kings 4:5; 2Kings 12:2).
InIsrael, people went to seers and prophets to inquire of God (1Sam.9:9), for they received and communicated God’s word (2Sam.24:11; Jer. 37:6). Sometimes individuals are mentioned as prophets,and other times the prophets are discussed as an organized group(1Sam. 19:20; 1Kings 22:6).
TheNT references a number of ministerial offices (1Cor. 12:28;Eph. 4:11; 1Tim. 3:1–12). Not all ministers were paid,though teachers and preachers had a right to “receive theirliving from the gospel” (1Cor. 9:14–15; cf. 1Tim.5:17). Apostles were those sent out by Jesus as his representatives.The term apostolos refers particularly to the twelve apostles whowere with Jesus during his earthly ministry and who were witnesses ofhis resurrection (Acts 1:21–22). Paul referred to himself as anapostle (Gal. 1:1; 1Cor. 1:1), and he calls Epaph-ro-di-tus andothers “messengers” (apostoloi) in the churches (2Cor.8:23; Phil. 2:25). Prophets have the spiritual gift of prophecy andspeak to strengthen, encourage, and comfort the church (Acts 15:32;1Cor. 14:3). Overseers (also called “elders” or“pastors”) are qualified leaders who teach, shepherd, andexercise authority in the church (1Tim. 3:1; 1Pet. 5:2).Evangelists and missionaries proclaim the gospel and aim to winconverts to Christ (Acts 21:8; 2Tim. 4:5). Those ministers whoare faithful to the gospel deserve support (3John8).
Secondary Matches
The following suggestions occured because
1 Corinthians 9:1-27
is mentioned in the definition.
The historical origins of Christianity need to be set against Jewish history, beliefs, and culture in Palestine and the eastern Mediterranean, but they also need to be set in the context of the wider Greco-Roman world that was dominated politically and militarily by the Roman Empire.
From Republic to Empire
Rome began as a city-state but soon became a transcontinental empire reaching over parts of Europe, Africa, and Asia. Rome emerged as the most dominant force in the Mediterranean after it defeated Carthage in the Second Punic War (218–201 BC). Thereafter, Rome began to expand its control and power over the various Hellenistic city-states in the east, including Macedonia, Illyria, and Asia Minor. By the mid-first century AD, Rome had also conquered or annexed Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Cyrene, Gaul, Spain, North Africa, and Armenia.
The transition from the Roman Republic to the Roman Empire took place under the Roman emperors beginning with Julius Caesar (100–44 BC), who, after crossing the Rubicon and defeating Pompey, was proclaimed dictator perpetuus (“dictator for life”). The period after Julius Caesar’s assassination (44 BC) was a time of political upheaval as Rome was marred by a series of civil wars. The first was between Octavius and Antony against Caesar’s assassins Brutus and Cassius. This climaxed in the Battle of Philippi (42 BC), which the former allies of Julius Caesar won. The second was between Octavius and Antony, where Antony and Cleopatra were defeated at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, leaving Octavius as the undisputed leader of Rome.
Octavius was given the honorific name “Augustus” by the senate. His reign (31 BC–AD 14) marked a period of consolidation, reorganization, and renewal of the Roman Empire. Augustus embarked on an empire-wide policy of fiscal rationalization, developed a constitutional settlement for Rome, centralized his military authority over the various provinces, and had Julius Caesar deified. Writers and artists of the era heralded Augustus’s reign as a time of unprecedented peace and security—peace from civil war and security from the Germanic tribes in the north and the Parthian Empire in the east. Worship of the emperor became more frequent especially in the Roman East, although Augustus did not permit it in Rome. What is most significant about Augustus is that it is with his reign that the Roman Empire essentially began. He was the emperor at the time of Jesus’ birth (Luke 2:1). It was under Trajan (AD 98–117), however, that the Roman Empire expanded to its largest area, encompassing parts of Britain and Persia.
Emperors (AD 14–98)
Tiberius, Augustus’s adopted heir, reigned in the years AD 14–37. He was a highly successful military general, but as emperor he was remembered as being gloomy and melancholic. Tiberius even went into a self-imposed exile for a time, leaving the praetorian prefect Sejanus in charge until Tiberius finally had him executed for treason. It was during the reign of Tiberius that Jesus conducted his ministry in Palestine.
Tiberius was succeeded by his adopted grandson Caligula, who reigned in the years AD 37–41. Caligula was the son of the popular Roman general Germanicus, who died in Antioch in AD 19. Historical sources are not favorably disposed toward Caligula, who was remembered as a malevolent tyrant given to self-aggrandizement and sexual perversity. In AD 39/40 Caligula departed from imperial policy that permitted emperor worship in the east and veneration of deceased emperors in Rome, and he often appeared dressed as a god in public and demanded worship as a living god. During this time he deposed Herod Antipas, the tetrarch of Galilee and Perea, on suspicion of consorting with Parthia (Josephus, Ant. 18.7). Caligula also ordered that his statue be placed in the holy of holies in the Jerusalem temple (Philo, Embassy 203). Petronius, the governor of Syria, knowing that such an act would lead to civil war, refused to comply and appealed to Caligula to reverse the order. In response, Caligula sent an order to Petronius that he commit suicide. Fortunately, news of Caligula’s assassination by a conspiracy involving the praetorian guard and senators reached Petronius first.
Claudius, Caligula’s uncle, reigned in the years AD 41–54, and his rule was defined by numerous public works, a reordering of the judicial system, a torrid series of marriages, the conquest of Britain, and a number of attempted coups by the Roman senate. In AD 49 he expelled the Jews from Rome because of disputes about a certain “Chrestus,” probably Christ (cf. Acts 18:2). No one is sure whether Claudius was murdered or died of old age, but he remained a sharp contrast to the brutal excesses of Caligula and Nero.
Nero, the stepson of Claudius, reigned in the years AD 54–68. The early period of his rule was marked by cultural endeavors and diplomatic efforts. The later years were, in contrast, distinguished by tyranny and self-aggrandizement. There was a Jewish revolt against Rome in Judea (AD 66–70) during Nero’s reign, and Vespasian was sent to pacify the territory. According to ancient sources, Nero accused Christians of starting the fire of Rome in AD 64 and subjected them to the cruelest of punishments, including crucifixion, being thrown to wild animals, and even being burned alive. It probably was during this time that the apostles Peter and Paul were martyred in Rome. Nero eventually was declared a public enemy by the Roman senate, and he committed suicide before he could be captured in AD 68. There arose a “Nero redivivus” legend, whereby many hoped or feared that Nero had not died in AD 68 but had fled to Parthia and would return to Rome in order to destroy it (Sib.Or. 4.119–124; 5.137–141, 361–396), and this arguably stands behind the imagery of Rev. 13:3; 17:8–11.
The suicide of Nero left a power vacuum in Rome, and AD 69 saw no less than four emperors ascend the throne: Galba, Otho, Vitellius, and finally Vespasian. Galba was governor of Hispania Tarraconensis and was invited to become emperor by the senate, but he was killed by the praetorian guard after they were bribed by the praetor Otho. Otho himself committed suicide after his forces were defeated by Vitellius, the commander of the legions on the Rhine. Vitellius became emperor, but he was fiscally irresponsible and murdered many of his rivals. The legions in the Danube, Egypt, Syria, and Judea had declared Vespasian emperor and marched on Rome. Vespasian controlled the grain supplies to Rome from Egypt and had a superior force. Vitellius’s forces were defeated at Bedriacum, and Vitellius went into hiding but eventually was killed in Rome. Vespasian was declared emperor by the senate, and so began the Flavian dynasty, which restored order after the chaos of civil war.
The Flavians ruled in the years AD 69–96. Vespasian (r. AD 69–79) consolidated the empire after its year of strife and instituted new taxes, such as the fiscus judaicus, a war reparation tax placed on all Jews and paid to the temple of Jupiter in lieu of the Jerusalem temple tax. Vespasian was succeeded by his sons Titus (r.AD 79–81) and Domitian (r. AD 81–96). When Vespasian sailed to Rome from Judea, Titus was left in charge of the siege of Jerusalem, which he completed and celebrated in a triumph in Rome in AD 72. This triumph is memorialized in the Arch of Titus, which depicts Roman soldiers bringing the vessels of the temple to Rome as part of the booty taken. Later Roman writers regarded Domitian as a malevolent and malicious tyrant (e.g., Tacitus, Suetonius), but this probably is an exaggeration caused partly by a desire to highlight the greatness of succeeding emperors such as Nerva and Trajan. It probably was during the reign of Domitian that some Christians in Asia Minor were being persecuted for their failure to worship the emperor, as depicted in the book of Revelation.
Table 7. Roman Emperors (31 BC–AD 117)
31 BC-AD 14 – Augustus
AD 14-37 – Tiberius
AD 37-41 – Caligula
AD 41-54 – Claudius
AD 54-68 – Nero
AD 68-69 – Galba
AD 69 – Otho
AD 69 – Vitellius
AD 69-79 – Vespasian
AD 79-81 – Titus
AD 81-96 – Domitian
AD 96-98 – Nerva
AD 98-117 – Trajan
Military
Military expeditions expanded Rome’s control of foreign territories and safeguarded its borders from incursion, most threateningly from the Germanic tribes east of the Rhine River and north of the Danube River and from the Parthian (=Neo-Persian) Empire east of the Euphrates River. A Roman legion consisted of around six thousand men, including cavalry. Under Tiberius, there were twenty-five legions stationed across the empire: eight on the Rhine, three in Spain, two in Egypt, four in Syria, two in Africa, and six in the Danube region. In terms of command structures, the legions were under the control of certain regional commands by men of consular rank, including two on the Rhine, one in Spain, one in Syria, and three in the Balkans (Tacitus, Ann. 4.5). These were among the most powerful persons outside the ruling family and could be kingmakers or contenders during times of civil war. A legion was divided into ten cohorts and commanded by a legate, usually of senatorial rank. Units of one hundred were commanded by centurions, and service in the legions was set at between twenty and twenty-five years. Upon recruitment, the soldier swore an oath of loyalty to the emperor (sacramentum) that was renewed annually. During times of peace, Roman soldiers could perform a number of civil tasks relating to taxation, building projects, and policing.
Centurions are mentioned several times in the NT (e.g., Matt. 8:5; Mark 15:39; Acts 10:1; 21:32; 27:1). There is a mention of a “legion” of demons that oppressed the Gerasene demoniac (Mark 5:9), and Jesus refers to the possibility of the Father sending him “legions” of angels (Matt. 26:53). Military terminology is very apparent in Paul’s letters, where he refers to fighting armor (Rom. 13:11–13; 2Cor. 6:7; Eph. 6:10–18), compares commitment to Christ to military service (2Tim. 2:4), refers to his coworkers as “soldiers” or “fellow soldiers” (Phil. 2:25; Philem. 2; 2Tim. 2:3), and likens ministerial remuneration to a soldier being paid his salarium (1Cor. 9:7).
Culture and Religion
One of the primary reasons for Rome’s rise and dominance, militarily and culturally, was its capacity to absorb other peoples and even other gods into its constituency and pantheon. Its constantly growing pantheon, application of the rule of law, and superior military force made Rome what it was: a melting pot of all cultures and a Romanizer of other cultures.
Roman society was heavily stratified, but social mobility, upward and downward, was possible. Wealth, marriage, education, and military exploits were the primary means to social advancement. The senatorial class represented the wealthy nobility of Rome and provided the primary cohort of civil and military administrators. The equestrian class (or “knights,” as they are sometimes called) were a larger group of less wealthy Roman citizens. Decurions were members of civil councils in provincial cities who often acted as magistrates and were leaders of local communities. The plebeians represented the general citizenry of Rome, who, until the time of Tiberius, had some power in electing officials. Finally, there were freedmen, who were ex-slaves usually in a relationship with their former master, and also slaves, who were regarded as little more than property.
The ancient Roman religions focused on the numen, the somewhat impersonal divine power associated with certain localities. From the third century BC, Greek deities were assimilated and Romanized, so that Zeus became Jupiter, and Vesta was identified as Hestia. The Capitoline Hill was crowned with a temple that was dedicated around 500 BC to Jupiter, Minerva, and Juno. These were the principal gods of Rome, although others were added to the pantheon as the Romans conquered other peoples and adopted their gods. Other gods also received greater honor, such as the goddess Pax, the personification of peace (based on the Greek goddess Eirene); Vespasian built and dedicated a temple in her honor in Rome in AD 75. The Roman emperor was the Pontifex Maximus and supreme high priest of Rome and the empire. In the mid- to late first century AD, the fastest-growing religion was the imperial cult, the worship of (usually) deceased Roman emperors. This cult became popular in the eastern Mediterranean cities, where worship of rulers was commonplace, but was regarded with indifference in Rome.
Religions and philosophies from all over the known world eventually made their way to Rome. Egyptian rites and religions gained followings, Mithraism acquired currency within the ranks of the military and among public servants, Judaism entered Rome probably with the Hasmonean delegation sent there around 139 BC, and Christianity came to Rome probably during the late 30s and early 40s of the first century AD through Jewish pilgrims visiting the east and through Judean immigration to Rome. Many Roman intellectuals lamented the fact that so many foreign superstitions had found their way to Rome, and that Roman peoples found them more attractive than their own state religion. Roman religion was largely controlled by the state through a set calendar and the appointment of priests and vestal virgins. It was practiced in public and in the home. As such, religious life was very much intertwined with social and political life. Roman religion engendered the need for its citizens to act with pietas, the honoring of one’s obligations to the gods, and with religio, which designated appropriate scruples and rites in the presence of the gods.
Summary
The birth of the church and the growth of Christianity took place within the wider social, religious, and cultural context of the Greco-Roman world. The politics and power of the Roman Empire provide the backdrop for the birth of Jesus (Luke 2:1), and since Rome was considered to be the center of the world, it was necessary that Paul himself testify to Jesus Christ there (Acts 19:21). The history, literature, and cultural background of Rome form an important background to the NT and should be studied along with the history and literature of Judaism during the time of Jesus and the apostles. Although the Romans were the primary threat to the survival of Christians in the ancient world, after the conversion of Constantine in the fourth century AD, they became the primary means by which Christianity spread to the rest of Europe and western Asia. See also Roman Law.
Conversion, signifying “to turn around” or a change of course in life, is closely related to repentance, although the two are by no means synonymous.
Conversion as part of God’s saving work. Both the OT and the NT present conversion as a crucial stage of God’s saving work for people. The leading metaphor for conversion in the OT is turning back (from sin, to God), mostly conveyed by the Hebrew word shub and its derivatives (turning from immorality and injustice and toward God in Isa. 55:7; turning away from idols in Ezek. 14:6). The NT likewise uses the metaphor of turning. Another metaphor for conversion is that of birth, evidenced in concepts such as becoming God’s children (Matt. 18:3), rebirth (1 Pet. 1:3), and being born again or born from above (John 3:3).
Although the rich concept of conversion may reflect an enormous range of events and actions in one’s life, what is central to the claim of conversion appears to be a definitive and radical change in one’s beliefs and practices. Conversion typically accompanies or, in some accounts, follows repentance of one’s sinful life. The call for repentance permeates the prophetic teachings in the OT, and it is significant that both John the Baptist and Jesus began their public ministry with their own prophetic call for repentance (Matt. 3:1–2; Mark 1:14–15). What distinguishes the NT teaching on repentance from its OT counterpart is that in the OT the prophets operated with the assumption that their audience was already in the covenantal relationship with God (“return to your God” [often using the Hebrew word shub]), whereas in the NT the invitation is extended to the Gentiles to “turn to God” (see Acts 26:20). In this regard, conversion is more distinctively a NT and Christian idea, firmly rooted in the broader sense of repentance.
The idea that humans need conversion to get right with God implies that the status quo of human existence, characterized by sin, is inadequate. God therefore has taken initiative to change it radically. In this sense, conversion is fundamentally God’s work applied to humans. In addition, conversion clearly requires a human response, which can take many different forms. The emotional component of one’s conversion experience can vary: both exuberance resulting from knowing the merits of redemption and sorrow prompted by recognizing the seriousness of one’s destitution are part of the complex spectrum of emotions relating to conversion. In the account of the Philippian jailor’s conversion (Acts 16), the jailor shows his desperation to escape his present crisis, a desire to be saved, and the joy that follows his decision to turn to Christ. Zacchaeus’s conversion is noteworthy for his willful reversal of his wrongdoings at a high personal and financial cost (Luke 19:8).
The conversion experience. It will be fruitful to use the most famous conversion account in the Bible as a template to understand the conversion experience in general. The biblical record of Paul’s conversion (Acts 9:1–27; 22:1–21; 26:9–23; see also 1 Cor. 9:1; 15:8–10; Gal. 1:15–17) demonstrates at least these distinct elements: (1) encountering the unknown yet powerful (mysterious, divine, etc.) being; (2) realizing one’s wrongdoings in the past; (3) surrendering to that being; (4) hearing the call for one’s life and gaining a renewed sense of direction.
Probably echoing OT metaphors of conversion and drawing from his own conversion experience, Paul describes the experience of Gentile believers as “turn[ing] to God from idols to serve the living and true God” (1 Thess. 1:9). Paul himself had a radical “turning around” on the road to Damascus, and he explained in his account before King Agrippa that his mission, as spoken to him by the risen Jesus, was to turn Jews and Gentiles “from darkness to light, and from the power of Satan to God” (Acts 26:18). Although the accounts of individual conversion experiences show rich variations, all converts essentially have made this transition.
Conversion, signifying “to turn around” or a change of course in life, is closely related to repentance, although the two are by no means synonymous.
Conversion as part of God’s saving work. Both the OT and the NT present conversion as a crucial stage of God’s saving work for people. The leading metaphor for conversion in the OT is turning back (from sin, to God), mostly conveyed by the Hebrew word shub and its derivatives (turning from immorality and injustice and toward God in Isa. 55:7; turning away from idols in Ezek. 14:6). The NT likewise uses the metaphor of turning. Another metaphor for conversion is that of birth, evidenced in concepts such as becoming God’s children (Matt. 18:3), rebirth (1 Pet. 1:3), and being born again or born from above (John 3:3).
Although the rich concept of conversion may reflect an enormous range of events and actions in one’s life, what is central to the claim of conversion appears to be a definitive and radical change in one’s beliefs and practices. Conversion typically accompanies or, in some accounts, follows repentance of one’s sinful life. The call for repentance permeates the prophetic teachings in the OT, and it is significant that both John the Baptist and Jesus began their public ministry with their own prophetic call for repentance (Matt. 3:1–2; Mark 1:14–15). What distinguishes the NT teaching on repentance from its OT counterpart is that in the OT the prophets operated with the assumption that their audience was already in the covenantal relationship with God (“return to your God” [often using the Hebrew word shub]), whereas in the NT the invitation is extended to the Gentiles to “turn to God” (see Acts 26:20). In this regard, conversion is more distinctively a NT and Christian idea, firmly rooted in the broader sense of repentance.
The idea that humans need conversion to get right with God implies that the status quo of human existence, characterized by sin, is inadequate. God therefore has taken initiative to change it radically. In this sense, conversion is fundamentally God’s work applied to humans. In addition, conversion clearly requires a human response, which can take many different forms. The emotional component of one’s conversion experience can vary: both exuberance resulting from knowing the merits of redemption and sorrow prompted by recognizing the seriousness of one’s destitution are part of the complex spectrum of emotions relating to conversion. In the account of the Philippian jailor’s conversion (Acts 16), the jailor shows his desperation to escape his present crisis, a desire to be saved, and the joy that follows his decision to turn to Christ. Zacchaeus’s conversion is noteworthy for his willful reversal of his wrongdoings at a high personal and financial cost (Luke 19:8).
The conversion experience. It will be fruitful to use the most famous conversion account in the Bible as a template to understand the conversion experience in general. The biblical record of Paul’s conversion (Acts 9:1–27; 22:1–21; 26:9–23; see also 1 Cor. 9:1; 15:8–10; Gal. 1:15–17) demonstrates at least these distinct elements: (1) encountering the unknown yet powerful (mysterious, divine, etc.) being; (2) realizing one’s wrongdoings in the past; (3) surrendering to that being; (4) hearing the call for one’s life and gaining a renewed sense of direction.
Probably echoing OT metaphors of conversion and drawing from his own conversion experience, Paul describes the experience of Gentile believers as “turn[ing] to God from idols to serve the living and true God” (1 Thess. 1:9). Paul himself had a radical “turning around” on the road to Damascus, and he explained in his account before King Agrippa that his mission, as spoken to him by the risen Jesus, was to turn Jews and Gentiles “from darkness to light, and from the power of Satan to God” (Acts 26:18). Although the accounts of individual conversion experiences show rich variations, all converts essentially have made this transition.
Conversion, signifying “to turn around” or a change of course in life, is closely related to repentance, although the two are by no means synonymous.
Conversion as part of God’s saving work. Both the OT and the NT present conversion as a crucial stage of God’s saving work for people. The leading metaphor for conversion in the OT is turning back (from sin, to God), mostly conveyed by the Hebrew word shub and its derivatives (turning from immorality and injustice and toward God in Isa. 55:7; turning away from idols in Ezek. 14:6). The NT likewise uses the metaphor of turning. Another metaphor for conversion is that of birth, evidenced in concepts such as becoming God’s children (Matt. 18:3), rebirth (1 Pet. 1:3), and being born again or born from above (John 3:3).
Although the rich concept of conversion may reflect an enormous range of events and actions in one’s life, what is central to the claim of conversion appears to be a definitive and radical change in one’s beliefs and practices. Conversion typically accompanies or, in some accounts, follows repentance of one’s sinful life. The call for repentance permeates the prophetic teachings in the OT, and it is significant that both John the Baptist and Jesus began their public ministry with their own prophetic call for repentance (Matt. 3:1–2; Mark 1:14–15). What distinguishes the NT teaching on repentance from its OT counterpart is that in the OT the prophets operated with the assumption that their audience was already in the covenantal relationship with God (“return to your God” [often using the Hebrew word shub]), whereas in the NT the invitation is extended to the Gentiles to “turn to God” (see Acts 26:20). In this regard, conversion is more distinctively a NT and Christian idea, firmly rooted in the broader sense of repentance.
The idea that humans need conversion to get right with God implies that the status quo of human existence, characterized by sin, is inadequate. God therefore has taken initiative to change it radically. In this sense, conversion is fundamentally God’s work applied to humans. In addition, conversion clearly requires a human response, which can take many different forms. The emotional component of one’s conversion experience can vary: both exuberance resulting from knowing the merits of redemption and sorrow prompted by recognizing the seriousness of one’s destitution are part of the complex spectrum of emotions relating to conversion. In the account of the Philippian jailor’s conversion (Acts 16), the jailor shows his desperation to escape his present crisis, a desire to be saved, and the joy that follows his decision to turn to Christ. Zacchaeus’s conversion is noteworthy for his willful reversal of his wrongdoings at a high personal and financial cost (Luke 19:8).
The conversion experience. It will be fruitful to use the most famous conversion account in the Bible as a template to understand the conversion experience in general. The biblical record of Paul’s conversion (Acts 9:1–27; 22:1–21; 26:9–23; see also 1 Cor. 9:1; 15:8–10; Gal. 1:15–17) demonstrates at least these distinct elements: (1) encountering the unknown yet powerful (mysterious, divine, etc.) being; (2) realizing one’s wrongdoings in the past; (3) surrendering to that being; (4) hearing the call for one’s life and gaining a renewed sense of direction.
Probably echoing OT metaphors of conversion and drawing from his own conversion experience, Paul describes the experience of Gentile believers as “turn[ing] to God from idols to serve the living and true God” (1 Thess. 1:9). Paul himself had a radical “turning around” on the road to Damascus, and he explained in his account before King Agrippa that his mission, as spoken to him by the risen Jesus, was to turn Jews and Gentiles “from darkness to light, and from the power of Satan to God” (Acts 26:18). Although the accounts of individual conversion experiences show rich variations, all converts essentially have made this transition.
Evangelism is the proclamation of the “evangel”(Gk. euangelion), the good news, of Jesus Christ. The content of theevangel includes Jesus’ birth, which was announced as good newsto Zechariah by the angel Gabriel (Luke 1:19) and by the angels tothe shepherds (Luke 2:10). The good news speaks of the reality ofJesus’ resurrection (Acts 17:18), is described as a message ofgrace (Acts 20:24) and reconciliation to God through the sacrificedbody of Christ (Col. 1:22–23), and includes the expectation ofa day of divine judgment (Rom. 2:16). Paul preached the gospel (fromOld English gōdspel, “good news”) message, which heclaimed had its origin with God, not humans (Gal. 1:11–12). Hesummarizes this message in 1Cor. 15:3b–5: “thatChrist died for our sins according to the Scriptures, that he wasburied, that he was raised on the third day according to theScriptures, and that he appeared to Cephas, and then to the Twelve.”The introduction to the Gospel of Mark (1:1) may indicate that thiswritten gospel could serve evangelistic purposes.
Evangelisticefforts in the New Testament.Numerous figures throughout the NT participated in evangelisticendeavors. John the Baptist’s preaching about the comingMessiah is described as evangelism (Luke 3:18). Evangelism was acharacteristic activity of Jesus’ own ministry (Matt. 4:23;9:35; Mark 1:14; Luke 20:1), which focused on proclaiming the adventof the kingdom of God (Luke 4:43; 8:1) and at times was targetedtoward the poor (Matt. 11:5; Luke 4:18; 7:22). Jesus commanded thosewho follow him to engage in evangelism. He sent out the twelveapostles for evangelistic purposes (Luke 9:2), and he issued theGreat Commission to this end (Matt. 28:18–20).
Themissionary enterprise recorded in Acts demonstrates the efforts ofthe earliest Christians to spread the gospel. The apostles inJerusalem (Acts 5:42) proclaimed the gospel in spite of greatopposition and persecution, and believers who were scattered outsideJerusalem because of persecution spread the gospel in new locales(8:4). Philip evangelized Samaritans and an Ethiopian (8:12, 35). Theministry of Paul and Barnabas is characterized as preaching the goodnews (14:7, 15, 21; 15:35; 16:10; 17:18). Philip, one of the sevenchosen to distribute food (6:5), was given the name “theEvangelist” (21:8). Timothy, additionally, is said to be Paul’sfellow worker in evangelism (1Thess. 3:2; cf. 2Tim. 4:5).
Evangelismwas a central part of Paul’s ministry (Rom. 1:9; 1Cor.1:17; 15:1–2; Eph. 6:19; 1Thess. 2:2, 9). He indicated anexplicit interest in sharing the gospel with Gentiles (Rom. 15:16;Gal. 1:16; 2:7; Eph. 3:8) and with those who had never heard it (Rom.15:20; 2 Cor. 10:16), and he expressed a desire to preach the gospelat Rome (Rom. 1:15). Paul wrote of the necessity of evangelism inorder for people to be saved (Rom. 10:15), and he preached the gospelmessage free of charge (1Cor. 9:16, 18; 2Cor. 11:7). Helisted the role of the evangelist in the church along with apostles,prophets, pastors, and teachers (Eph. 4:11).
Goaland methods of evangelism.Evangelism’s goal is to spread the gospel across ethnic andreligious boundaries until it reaches all nations (Mark 13:10; Col.1:23). To this end, Acts details an intentional effort by theearliest Christians to share the gospel with those who came from bothJewish and non-Jewish backgrounds. Acts 8:25 records Peter and John’sevangelistic efforts in Samaritan villages, and Acts 15:7 identifiesPeter as an evangelist to Gentiles. An outreach specifically toGentiles is chronicled in Acts 11:20, and Paul’s intentionalprogram of traveling from city to city further contributes to thisgoal (Rom. 15:19).
Theevangelists recorded in the NT demonstrate a range of methods andapproaches to sharing the good news. They often began with a point ofcontact from the religious worldview of their audience. For instance,Philip used Scripture as a starting point in speaking with anindividual who was familiar with some portion of it (Acts 8:35).Similarly, when addressing Jews, Paul preached Jesus as thefulfillment of various OT Scriptures (Acts 13:32–41), but whenpreaching the gospel to the Greeks in Athens, he acknowledged theirreligiosity and their previous worship of one called “anunknown God” (17:22–23). Evangelists sought opportunitiesto gain an audience, and Paul even took advantage of an illness tostay with the Galatians and share the gospel with them (Gal. 4:13).Finally, much of the evangelistic work in the early church wascoupled with miraculous signs and wonders, which served toauthenticate the message being proclaimed (Rom. 15:19; 1Thess.1:5).
The common experience/sharing of something with someone else.In the NT, the most common Greek word group to express this idea hasthe root koin- (“common”), with the cognate verbkoinōneō, noun koinōnia, and adjective koinos. But theconcept of fellowship extends well beyond this single word family andfinds expression in a variety of different contexts.
Fellowshipbetween the Members of the Trinity
TheGospel of John makes several claims about the fellowship that themembers of the Trinity have experienced with each other from alleternity. Jesus claims, “I and the Father are one”(10:30) and “It is the Father, living in me, who is doing hiswork” (14:10). Regarding the Holy Spirit, Jesus says, “Hewill glorify me because it is from me that he will receive what hewill make known to you. All that belongs to the Father is mine”(16:14–15). The Son has even shared in the Father’s gloryfrom before the creation of the world (17:5). Within the unity of theGodhead, the individual members experience perfect fellowship as theyshare in the fullness of deity.
Fellowshipbetween Jesus and Outcasts
Duringhis earthly ministry, Jesus modeled God’s love for themarginalized by associating with them. Such fellowship often took theform of sharing meals with outcasts such as tax collectors andsinners (Mark 2:15–17; Luke 5:29–32; 7:36–50;19:1–10), a practice that provoked sharp criticism from thePharisees (Luke 15:1–2). In Luke 15:3–32, Jesus tellsthree parables in response to such criticism. These parables indicatethat his fellowship with sinners demonstrates God’s love forthe lost and the joy that comes from restored fellowship with God.Such table fellowship served as a foretaste of the eschatologicalmessianic banquet, when all of God’s people (Jew and Gentilealike) will eat together in the kingdom of God as the fellowship ofthe forgiven (Matt. 8:11; Luke 13:29–30; Rev. 19:6–9).
Fellowshipbetween Believers and God
Theclose and intimate fellowship that the members of the Trinityexperience with one another is something that Jesus prays for hispeople to experience themselves (John 17:20–26). He asks thatbelievers “may be one, Father, just as you are in me and I amin you. May they also be in us so that the world may believe that youhave sent me” (17:21). Just as the Father is in Jesus and Jesusis in the Father, believers are described as being in both the Fatherand the Son. The stated purpose for such fellowship is twofold: thatthe world may know and believe that the Father has sent the Son, andthat the Father loves believers even as he has loved the Son (17:21,23). Central to this fellowship between God and believers is thesharing of the glory that the Father and the Son experience (17:22).Jesus expresses similar truths in John 15:1–11 when he speaksof himself as the true vine and his followers as the branches whomust remain in him because “apart from me you can donothing”(v.5).
Althoughfellowship with God is something that Christ has purchased for hispeople through his death and resurrection, it can be broken by sin inthe believer’s life: “If we claim to have fellowship withhim and yet walk in the darkness, we lie and do not live out thetruth” (1John 1:6). When sin does break a believer’sfellowship with God, we are reassured, “If we confess our sins,he is faithful and just and will forgive us our sins and purify usfrom all unrighteousness” (1:9). This restoration of fellowshipis based on the work of Jesus to plead our case before theFather(2:1).
Paulfrequently speaks of the believer’s fellowship with Christ,even though he rarely uses the word “fellowship” to speakof this reality. It is God who calls the believer into fellowshipwith Christ (1Cor. 1:9), but such fellowship involves both the“power of his resurrection and participation in his sufferings,becoming like him in his death” (Phil. 3:10). When believerscelebrate the Lord’s Supper, they are participating in the bodyand blood of Christ (1Cor. 10:16–17). Far morefrequently, Paul expresses the concept of fellowship with Christ byhis use of the phrase “with Christ.” Believers have beencrucified, buried, raised, clothed, and seated in the heavenly realmswith Christ (Rom. 6:4–9; 2Cor. 13:4; Gal. 2:20–21;Eph. 2:5–6; Col. 2:12–13; 3:1–4). They also sharein the inheritance that Christ has received from the Father (Rom.8:16–17) and one day will reign with him (2Tim.2:12).
Fellowshipbetween Believers and Others
Thefellowship that believers have with one another is an extension oftheir fellowship with God. John wrote, “We proclaim to you whatwe have seen and heard, so that you also may have fellowship with us.And our fellowship is with the Father and with his Son, Jesus Christ”(1John 1:3). Just as walking in darkness falsifies a believer’sclaim to fellowship with God, so also walking in the light isnecessary for fellowship with other believers (1:6–7). Paulstrikes a similar note when he says, “Do not be yoked togetherwith unbelievers. For what do righteousness and wickedness have incommon? Or what fellowship can light have with darkness? What harmonyis there between Christ and Belial? Or what does a believer have incommon with an unbeliever?” (2Cor. 6:14–15). Thepoint is not to avoid all contact with unbelievers (cf. 1Cor.5:9–10), but rather that the believer is so fundamentallyidentified with Christ that to identify with unbelievers should beavoided.
Becausethey are joined to Christ by faith, believers share a wide variety ofexperiences and blessings with each other. In the broadest sense,they share in the gospel and its blessings (1Cor. 9:23; Phil.1:5–7; Philem. 6; 2Pet. 1:4), especially the Spirit(2Cor. 13:13–14; Phil. 2:1). But the most common sharedexperience is suffering. When believers suffer because of theiridentification with Christ, they are said to share in Christ’ssuffering (Phil. 3:10; 1Pet. 4:13). In addition to thisvertical element, there is a horizontal aspect. Because believers areunited in one body (1Cor. 12:12–13; Eph. 4:4–6),when one believer suffers, the entire body shares in that suffering(2Cor. 1:7; Heb. 10:33; Rev. 1:9).
Fromthe earliest days of the church, believers found very tangible waysto demonstrate that their fellowship was rooted in their common faithin Jesus. Immediately after Pentecost, “they devoted themselvesto the apostles’ teaching and to fellowship, to the breaking ofbread and to prayer.... All the believers weretogether and had everything in common” (Acts 2:42–44).This common experience led believers to voluntarily sell theirpossessions and share with any who had a need (2:45; 4:32). Thismeeting of very practical needs was motivated by a common experienceof God’s abundant generosity in freely giving his Son (Rom.8:32). The self-sacrificial sharing of resources became a staple ofthe early church (Rom. 12:13; Gal. 6:6; 1Tim. 6:18) andprovided an opportunity for Paul to demonstrate the unity of thechurch when he collected money from Gentile churches to alleviate thesuffering of Jewish Christians in Judea (Rom. 15:26–27; 2Cor.8–9).
Conclusion
Biblicalfellowship is not merely close association with other believers. TheNT emphasizes what believers share in Christ rather than whom theyshare it with. True biblical fellowship between believers is anoutworking of their fellowship with God through the gospel.
English versions use the word “garland” to translate several Hebrew and Greek words referring to floral wreaths worn on the head, usually to bestow honor as a celebratory adornment. In the book of Proverbs, a garland indicates the honor bestowed on those who are wise (1:9; 4:9). A bridegroom wore a garland, while his bride was adorned with jewels (Isa. 61:10 NRSV). Laurel wreaths or garlands were given to victorious athletes in the Greek games (1Cor. 9:25 [NIV: “crown”]), and the priest of Zeus in Lystra brought garlands as gifts for Paul and Barnabas to honor them as gods (Acts 14:13 [NIV: “wreaths”]). In the great day of salvation, God will symbolically be “a garland of glory” for his people (Isa. 28:5 NRSV [NIV: “glorious crown”]).
In the ancient world, a place for physical training and Greekeducation. The English word “gymnasium” comes from theGreek word gymnos, meaning “naked,” referring to the factthat Greeks exercised in the nude. As a foundational institution ofthe Greek city and inseparable from the Greek way of life, thegymnasium was a sign of Hellenism within Israel and a point ofconflict with those who viewed Hellenism as a violation of the law.In 175 BC Jason the high priest asked AntiochusIV to build agymnasium (1Macc. 1:14; 2Macc. 4:9). Many Jews, includingpriests, embraced Hellenism and participated in the gymnasium(2Macc. 4:14). Some even underwent surgery to remove signs oftheir circumcision (1Macc. 1:15). This cultural clashcontributed to the Maccabean revolt. By the first century AD, theactivities of the gymnasia were well known in Jewish culture. Philoof Alexandria (20 BC–AD 50), a Jewish philosopher andcommentator, spoke positively of the training received in a gymnasium(Dreams 69). Paul used the activities of the gymnasium as metaphorsfor Christian living: running (1Cor. 9:24–27), boxing(1Cor. 9:26), and wrestling (Eph. 6:12). In 1Tim. 4:8Paul uses the Greek term gymnasia to mean “physical training”and acknowledges its value.
Withinthe gymnasium complex athletes trained in multiple sports, includingrunning, boxing, wrestling, and javelin throwing. The gymnasiumcombined physical training with education in literature, philosophy,rhetoric, and music. Though open to all male citizens, it wasprimarily used by boys between the ages of fifteen and twenty.
Thegymnasium complex contained a running track and a palaistra, acentral courtyard surrounded by colonnades with rooms for dressing,oiling, and powdering. The complex also included baths andclassrooms. A library was usually nearby or a part of the complex.
Thegymnasiarch, who was elected to a one-year term, supervised allaspects of training and education and provided for the needs andsupplies of the gymnasium. He also employed professional trainers andteachers.
The Letter of Jude is a model of the Christian approach tothose who come preaching another gospel.
Outline
I.Greetings (vv. 1–2)
II.Occasion (vv. 3–4)
III.How to Identify False Teachers (vv. 5–19)
IV.Save Some (vv. 20–23)
V.Glory to the One Who Keeps Us until That Day (vv. 24–25)
Authorship
Theauthor identifies himself as “Jude, a servant of Jesus Christand a brother of James” (v.1). He was the brother ofJesus and the younger son of Mary and Joseph. Only James the brotherof Jesus (Matt. 13:55; Mark 6:3; John 7:5; Acts 1:14) could beunambiguously identified by his first name alone. Both James and Judecall themselves “servants” of Christ (cf. James 1:1), notapostles (cf. Rom. 1:1; Titus 1:1). After leading the church inJerusalem for over thirty years (cf. Acts 15), James was murdered inAD 62. Paul states that Peter and the brothers of Jesus traveled asmissionaries together and were known to the church in Corinth (1Cor.9:5). This would most likely include Jude and his family. Actsimplies that James never left Jerusalem.
Inthe third through the fifth centuries AD, some interpreters saw somedifficulty in Jude’s citation of 1Enoch, but the letterwas eventually accepted as authentic.
Destinationand Purpose
Thereis no indication of a destination. Our only clue is its associationwith 2Peter. If 2Pet. 3:1 refers to 1Peter, thenJude’s letter may well have been written to the same JewishChristians living in cities in northern Asia Minor (modern-dayTurkey).
Judesays that he started to write a general letter of encouragement buthad to write this letter instead due to the urgent situation createdby the infiltration of false teachers into these communities. Thesefalse teachers denied Jesus Christ and turned God’s grace intoan excuse to exceed God’s boundaries (v.4). This would bea particularly powerful charge against false teachers who professed ahigher law but whose personal lives were scandalous.
Judeidentified these false teachers with a long list of deviantindividuals from the past, establishing a pattern by which the readercould rightly evaluate them. This was directed to warn believersrather than persuade unbelievers. As such, it appears harsh. However,Jude’s passion was to see the believers stand firm, tostrengthen the undecided, and to evangelize the false teachers(vv.22–23). The overall goal was the salvation of all.
Opponents
Amidconsiderable speculation about the identity of Jude’sopponents, there have been few firm conclusions. The maincharacteristic of these false teachers is their immoral lifestyle andtheir tendency to turn the free grace of God into an excuse forlicentiousness (v.4). Some have suggested that they weregnostics, since some gnostic groups viewed the physical world asspiritually irrelevant and used this belief as an excuse forimmorality and debauchery. But gnosticism as a developed system isnot known to exist prior to the second century, and thecharacteristics that Jude describes were common to other groups aswell. Although it is possible that these false teachers were“proto-gnostics” of one sort or another, this proposalmust be viewed as tentative, and care should be taken not to(mis)interpret the letter on the basis of such a hypothesis.
MainThemes
Judeclearly asserts the sovereignty of God as a basis for Christianassurance, since it is God who keeps the believer (vv.1, 24).He speaks in absolute terms of the believer’s blamelessness inChrist on judgment day (v.24). By contrast, those who adhere toanother gospel are deviants who violate God’s created order.The Christian response is to hold firm to the gospel and reject falseteaching vigorously. Jude’s defense of the faith is exemplary.He has extensive knowledge of his opponents’ literature, myths,and teachings and is able to use this against them. Like Peter, hepoints his readers back to the eyewitness testimony of the apostles(vv.3, 17), who predicted such challenges as an ongoing issuefor Christians until Jesus returns. He urges believers to worktogether to maintain right doctrine, behavior, and an attitude oflove (vv.20–21) and to apply the grace of the gospel evento their opponents in hope of their salvation (vv.22–23).Jude’s final words (vv.24–25) constitute one of themost beautiful and reassuring doxologies of the Bible.
Romans is a letter sent by Paul from Corinth to the housechurches in Rome. The letter is unique in several ways. It is thelongest of all Pauline letters, which explains why it appears firstin the NT canon (Paul’s letters are arranged in length fromlongest to shortest and divided into two groups: to churches and toindividuals). Romans is one of the last letters Paul wrote while hewas a free man. Shortly after sending it, Paul traveled to Jerusalem,where he was arrested, and subsequently spent several years in prisonin Caesarea and Rome. Romans is one of two letters Paul sent tochurches that he had never visited (the other is Colossians, a churchstarted by Paul through one of his missionary associates, Epaphras).But what sets Romans apart from the rest of his letters is this: itis the only letter Paul sent to establish contact with a church thathe did not start. Since letter production was so expensive, why didPaul send this, his lengthiest letter, to a group of people he didnot know? It seems perfectly reasonable for Paul to send letters tostraighten out problems among his own converts while he was absent,but it seems odd that he would send a very long, sophisticatedtheological argument (with several warnings) to a group of housechurches that did not know him, much less ask for his advice. Why didhe do it?
Paul’sPurpose
Romeand Spain. Paulstates his purpose for sending Romans at the beginning and toward theend of the letter. At first, he explains why he had not visited Rome,even though he wanted to come in order to “impart to you somespiritual gift to make you strong” and “that I might havea harvest among you, just as I have had among the other Gentiles”(1:11–13). Paul’s intentions are revealing. He believesthat since God has called him to be the apostle to the Gentiles(1:1), it is his duty to impart spiritual gifts to churches withGentile members as well as add to their number by converting Gentilesin their region. In other words, although Paul had never visited Romeor had a hand in starting or guiding the Roman church to this point,he believes that he is responsible for it by virtue of his calling.Therefore, since he has been unable to do the work of an apostle bycoming to them, he sends the Roman house churches a letter(15:14–16). But this is not the only reason for Romans. At theend of the letter Paul asks the Roman Christians to support hisupcoming mission to Spain (15:22–29) and to pray that God willprotect him during his visit to Jerusalem, for he expects troublewhen he arrives there (15:30–32).
Paul’srequest for financial support is a little unusual. Only a fewchurches helped him financially (Philippi and probably Antioch), andas far as we know, he did not ask for this assistance (Phil. 4:15–17;2Cor. 11:9). He preferred to support himself by working (1Cor.9:6–18; 2Thess. 3:7–10). In Paul’s day, moneycame with strings attached; clients were obligated to “obey”their patrons—an arrangement that Paul would find intolerable.So, in light of Paul’s practice of self-support, why did he askthe Roman house churches for assistance with his planned mission toSpain? And if that were his primary purpose in writing, why did hesend such a lengthy letter containing arguments that seem to havelittle to do with his request? A simple letter asking for help wouldhave sufficed. Besides breaking from his usual practice ofself-support, why would he ask the Roman church for help? Why notsend a letter to churches that he himself had started and ask fortheir help? Paul had recently finished collecting a relief offeringfrom his churches to help the poor in Jerusalem. Why did he notcollect additional funds (or use part of the money) to expand hismissionary efforts to Spain? If he was willing to be indebted tosomeone, why not let it be his own converts (especially thePhilippians)? Indeed, there seems to be more to Paul’s letterthan a request for financial aid. Apparently, Paul’s reasonsfor writing Romans go beyond his stated purposes.
TheRoman churches.Paul’s relationship with the Roman house churches may have beenmore involved than what might be presumed. At the end of the letterPaul greets at least five house churches, naming several individuals(16:5, 10–11, 14–15). It is a long list of names,especially compared to other Pauline letters. These are persons Paulknew very well, not only Prisca and Aquila (cf. Acts 18:2; 1Cor.16:19), but also Epenetus, Ampliatus, and Stachys, whom Paul calls“my dear friend” (16:5–9) as well as Andronicus,Junia, and Herodion, who are called “my relatives” (16:7,11; NIV: “my fellow Jews”). He even referred to a memberof the church as “a mother to me” (16:13). Paul also knewabout the problems in Rome (14:1–15:13) and felt obliged toclear up what others were saying about him in Rome (3:8). In otherwords, Paul and the Roman church were not strangers. He did not sendthe Roman letter to introduce himself in order to ask for help. Eventhough the apostle to the Gentiles had never visited Rome, Paul andthe Roman church knew each other. He obviously had many friends amongtheir number; several were key leaders (a group to which Paul wastrying to add Phoebe [16:1–2]). Perhaps Paul’s influencein the church was so significant that he was compelled to send theRoman letter for the same reason he sent other letters: they neededhis help in straightening out their problems. In particular, JewishChristians were not getting along with Gentile Christians—asituation that Paul had faced several times before—which theapostle addresses in the last half of the letter (9:1–15:13).But if that is the main reason for Romans, what is the purpose of thefirst half of the letter—a lengthy, sophisticated theologicalargument concerning the righteousness of God that seems to havelittle to do with ethnic divisions among Roman Christians?
Theology.Since Romans contains the clearest and most substantive theologicalargument of all of Paul’s letters, scholars wonder why he wroteit. Some have thought that Paul was trying to get his beliefs down onpaper before facing perilous times in Jerusalem. Others have argued,based on Paul’s appeal for financial support, that Romans is acondensed version of his gospel—a “this is what I preachso you can support me” letter. Recently, scholars have beenemphasizing the correlation between chapters 1–8 and 9–16.That is to say, the first half of Romans is the theologicalfoundation upon which Paul builds his argument for a unified churchthreatened by ethnic, social, and economic divisions. But what is theevidence of ethnic strife in the Roman letter? First of all, whenPaul greets certain house churches, the grouping of names revealsthat “birds of a feather flocked together.” Persons withJewish names appear together (16:1–7), separated from thosewith slave names (16:8–10a), and distinguished from those withhigh-status Greek names (16:14–15). This conforms to thedemographics of the first-century city, where Jews were segregatedfrom their neighbors and the poor lived together in the leastdesirable part of Rome. The contentious debate over food and calendarbetween the “weak” and the “strong” revealsfault lines that conform to ethnic and social divisions within thechurch: weak= Jews, strong= Gentiles (14:1–15:13).At one point, Paul even singles out his Gentile readers by issuing aspecific warning about ignoring the Jewish roots of their faith(11:13–24). With these issues in mind, scholars see how Paulfront-loaded his warnings about ethnic strife with the theologicalargument of 1:1–8:39. Indeed, Romans is a pastoral letter withtheological purpose.
Outline
I.Introduction (1:1–17)
A.Greeting (1:1–7)
B.Thanksgiving and prayer (1:8–15)
C.Thesis: the righteousness of God by faith (1:16–17)
II.The Righteousness of God by Faith (1:18–8:39)
A.Judgment of God against ungodliness and unrighteousness (1:18–3:20)
B.Righteousness of God in Christ by faith (3:21–5:11)
C.Questions regarding the righ-teous-ness of God in Christ by faith(5:12–8:39)
III.Living Righteously by Faith (9:1–15:13)
A.What about Israel? (9:1–11:36)
B.Present the body as a sacrifice (12:1–21)
C.Submit to God (13:1–14)
D.Accept one another (14:1–15:13)
IV.Conclusion (15:14–16:27)
A.Paul’s purpose (15:14–33)
B.Final greetings (16:1–27)
Paul’sArgument
Themain point of Paul’s letter to the Romans is that therighteousness of God has been fully revealed in Christ Jesus.According to Paul, this is “good news” (gospel) for Jewsand Gentiles. In fact, the entire letter is Paul’s explanationof why he believes that this new revelation of God’srighteousness in Christ is good news for all people, even his ownkin. But what does Paul mean by “the righteousness of God”?Is he talking about how God makes individuals right by faith inChrist? Or is he defending God’s way of saving the world,saying that God is right to bring salvation to all people through thegospel? Does the phrase “righteousness of God” mean“personal justification that comes from God” or “thejustice of God”? What makes Paul’s meaning even moreconfusing for speakers of English is that one Greek word (dikaiosynē)can be translated three ways: “righteousness,” “justice,”or “justification.” Thus, there are those who argue thatPaul emphasizes personal righteousness—that is, how a personcan have right standing with God. Others, however, maintain that Paulis arguing for his gospel as an undeniable demonstration of God’sjustice—that is, how God’s character as a just God isrevealed through the salvation of the world through Christ (not onlysons of Abraham, not only sons of Adam, but all creation). Thedifferent emphases have significant implications for Paul’sargument.
Judgmentof God against ungodliness and unrighteousness (1:18–3:20).Take, for example, Paul’s view of the law and how it functionsin the first part of Romans (1:18–3:20). Some take 3:20 as theclimax of this part of the argument, where Paul assigns one purposeto the law: to define sin. So according to this line ofinterpretation, Paul believes that God gave the law in order to showhumanity’s need of Christ. Since no one is able to keep thewhole law, especially those to whom it has been given, the Jews, then“all have sinned and fall short of the glory of God”(3:23). The implication, of course, is that God gave the law in orderto reveal to people Israel’s failure so that Israel wouldrecognize their need for a righteousness that depends not onobedience but on God’s free gift through Christ. But there aretwo problems with this approach: Paul is offended by the idea thatGod gave the law to the Israelites in order to cause them to “stumbleso as to fall” (11:11–12), and he also maintains thatthere were some who kept the law (Gentiles!), proving that “doersof the law will be justified” (2:13–14 NASB, NKJV). Inother words, the law is God’s gift to Israel that is supposedto give it an advantage when it comes to righteousness (3:1–2).But the Jews disobeyed God (2:17–24), incurring his wrath( just like the Gentiles [1:18–32]). So Paul makes theargument that God is right to punish Israelites (as well as theGentiles) for their disobedience (2:1–12): “There will betrouble and distress for every human being who does evil: first forthe Jew, then for the Gentile” (2:9). In other words, 1:18–3:20is not only an argument for the universality of sin (which neitherJew nor Gentile would deny) but also a justification of therevelation of God’s righteous wrath against all ungodliness anddisobedience, even for the Jewish people. Paul is pointing out thejustice of God by emphasizing his impartial punishment of sin.
Butthis is where an interlocutor (a hypothetical opponent of Paul) couldraise an objection: “But we Jews have the covenant with God,consisting of laws and promises from God. God promised to bless thesons of Abraham and gave us the law—with all the prescriptionsfor sacrifices and atonement—to deal with sin. We will escapeGod’s wrath because God is faithful even though we are not.”Even though Paul’s interlocutor does not use these words, thisis the basis of the argument that Paul puts into the mouth of hisimaginary opponent in 3:1–8. The interlocutor essentially says,“If our sin reveals the righteous wrath of God, then Paul issaying that our disobedience serves his purpose. Why should we bejudged as sinners?” In other words, what is the point of thecovenant if God’s chosen people are no better off than paganson the day of judgment? But this is the very point that Paul willcontend with on two counts. First, who says that God’s chosenpeople do not have an advantage in preparing for the day of judgment(an argument that he will come back to in 9:1–11:32)? Second,who says that the law is God’s only requirement of the covenant(a question that he answers in 3:21–5:21)? Throughout theentire Roman letter Paul holds two seemingly contradictory ideas intension: the fulfillment of God’s covenant promises to Abrahamis not contingent upon Israel’s obedience (God is faithful),and not every descendant of Abraham will realize the covenantpromises of God (only those who have faith like Abraham). The reasonfor the tension is that a new kind of righteousness has been revealedapart from the law (although predicted by the Law and the Prophets),fulfilling the salient requirement of the covenant. Those who believethat the righteousness of God is found in Christ will inherit thepromises of God to Abraham, whether Jew or Gentile. Therefore,Christ’s followers are the sons of Abraham, the children of thecovenant, justified by faith, not by law. All of this is by divinedesign—what Paul calls “predestination.”
Righteousnessof God in Christ by faith (3:21–5:11).According to Paul, sacrifices prescribed by the law only deferred thewrath of God. “In his forbearance he had left the sinscommitted beforehand unpunished” (3:25). On the other hand,Jesus’ sacrificial death, a public display of God’srighteousness, atones for the sins of Jews and Gentiles “at thepresent time” (3:25–30). To describe the justification ofChrist’s death as an act of redemption, Paul uses a technicalword, “propitiation” (v.25 [NIV: “sacrificeof atonement”]), which has two meanings: either God’srighteous requirement was “satisfied” by the blood ofChrist, or God’s wrath was “appeased” by the bloodof Christ. Either way, at this point we might have expected Paul toexplain how Christ’s death satisfied the requirements of thelaw by offering the perfect sacrifice (much like the argument ofHebrews). Instead, he emphasizes the role of faith in this newrevelation of God’s righteousness: both the faith(fulness) ofJesus and the faith of those who believe in him (the phrase oftentranslated “faith in Jesus Christ” might also mean“faithfulness of Jesus Christ” [3:22, 26]). This does twothings at once: it makes the righteousness of God available toGentiles as well as Jews because it is based on faith (“Is Godthe God of Jews only? Is he not the God of Gentiles too? Yes, ofGentiles too” [3:29]), and it elevates the role of faith aboveworks of the law in the story of God’s covenant with Israel(“For we maintain that a person is justified by faith apartfrom the works of the law” [3:28]). In other words, byprivileging faith over works of law, Paul has made a way for Gentilesto realize the promises God made to Abraham and has established thesupreme requirement of the Abrahamic covenant for Jews. This is whyscholars say that 4:1–25 (Paul’s interpretation of God’scovenant with Abraham) is crucial to his argument for therighteousness of God in Christ.
Abrahamwas God’s first Gentile convert. That is to say, Abraham was anuncircumcised Chaldean when God established his covenant with thefather of Israel. For Paul, the sequence of the story is pivotal tohis argument. In 4:3 he quotes Gen. 15:6, “Abraham believedGod, and it was credited to him as righteousness,” and pointsout that God’s righteousness was “credited” or“reckoned” to the patriarch because of his faith while hewas still uncircumcised (Rom. 4:10–12). Abraham believed God’spromise of making him the father of many nations even though he hadno son. Faith in God’s promise is what made this uncircumcisedman righteous. Furthermore, because of his faith, the promise of Godwas fulfilled: Abraham not only became the father of Israel; hebecame the father of all nations (Gentiles) who have faith likeAbraham. And what kind of faith is that? It is a resurrectionfaith—one who believes that God gives life to the dead, notonly dead loins and a dead womb, but also a dead man (4:16–25).So the righteousness of God is “reckoned” for “uswho believe in him who raised Jesus our Lord from the dead. He wasdelivered over to death for our sins and was raised to life for ourjustification” (4:24–25). Faith in the promise of God isthe requisite of covenant blessing. For if the covenant were based onworks of law, then Israel would be the only beneficiary of God’sgrace, and the promises God made to Abraham—that he would bethe father of many nations—would be made void (4:13–15).“Therefore, the promise comes by faith, so that it may be bygrace and may be guaranteed to all Abraham’s offspring—notonly to those who are of the law but also to those who are of thefaith of Abraham. He is the father of us all” (4:16).
Thedeath and resurrection of Jesus changed everything. It turned God’senemies into friends. It brought peace to those who deserved God’swrath. In Christ’s death, God loves the ungodly. In Christ’sresurrection, hope befriends the helpless. When Paul spells out theadvantages of the righteousness of God in Christ in 5:1–11, itreads like a condensed version of all that is right with the gospelaccording to Paul. His favorite triad is there: faith, hope, love. Heemploys his favorite metaphors to explain the meaning of thesacrifice of Christ: justification and reconciliation. He writes ofsalvation in every tense: past, present, and future. In fact, therest of the argument in 5:12–8:39 is Paul’s explanationof what he means in these few verses, gathering up issues raised atthe beginning of the letter—the problem of sin, the law, andthe righteousness of God.
Questionsregarding the righteousness of God in Christ by faith (5:12–8:39).Paul once again begins with the human condition: the law of sin anddeath reigns in the world because of Adam. But where the first Adamfailed, the second Adam (Christ) has succeeded: because of hisobedience, grace reigns eternally through his righteousness(5:12–21). How does this righteousness apply to Christbelievers, especially Gentiles without law? Sin was crucified withChrist so that believers can be slaves of righteousness, freed fromthe bondage of sin (6:1–23). Furthermore, believers have beenfreed from the law, a spiritual and holy gift that sin used to arousethe flesh, effecting death (7:1–25). What the law could not do(bring life) because of the weakness of the flesh, God did by sendinghis Son in human flesh in order to condemn sin, bring aboutjustice/righteousness required by the law, and provide his Spirit toenable believers to have resurrection life (8:1–27). This hasbeen God’s plan from the beginning (predestination): he willhave a people (election) like Jesus Christ ( justification),who will share in his resurrection (glorification). And what Godstarts, he finishes. Nothing can frustrate the plans of God. His loveis too great; his power is irrepressible (8:28–39). Since Godis the one who justifies the “elect,” no charge can bebrought against them (8:33).
Paul’sAdvice
Theconclusion to Paul’s argument—believers in Christ can donothing to jeopardize God’s love for them as his “elect”—bringsto mind the problem of Israel’s rejection of the gospel(9:1–11:32). If Paul believes that God’s promises areirrevocable, should not the same apply to Israel? If therighteousness of God is found in Christ, what does this mean for Jewswho do not believe in Jesus? Does their unbelief undermine God’sfaithfulness? This was more than a theological problem for Paul.Ethnic issues threatened to divide the church in Rome. Evidently,Gentile believers were displaying an arrogant attitude toward Jewishmembers of the church (11:13–24), contemptuous of their dietaryrestrictions and Sabbath observances (14:3–6). Perhaps Paul’snotorious reputation as a lawbreaker (3:8) added fuel to the fire ofethnic strife and emboldened Gentile believers to disregard Jewishsensibilities with smug confidence, especially in a place such asRome, where tensions between Jews and Gentiles were prevalent. Or,maybe Paul had nothing to do with it; Gentile contempt for Jewishpeople and their ways was an unfortunate by-product of the argumentfor Gentile inclusion: the law no longer defined righteousness (“Whoneeds the Jews and their law?”). Whatever the cause, Israel’srejection of the gospel coupled with the historical problem of Jewversus Gentile was a delicate issue that required a carefully nuancedanswer from Paul (9:1–11:32), setting up his advice for housechurches that needed to learn how to get along with one another(12:1–15:13).
Whatabout Israel? (9:1–11:36).Paul uses Isaiah’s idea of a faithful remnant to explain howGod’s promises to Abraham are fulfilled despite Israel’sdisobedience (9:27–11:10). In this case, the disobedient ofIsrael are made evident by their refusal to believe in the gospelaccording to Paul (10:5–21). Because they prefer arighteousness of their own (a Jewish kind of righteousness), zeal forthe law has made them ignorant of the righteousness of God in Christ(9:30–10:4). But does Jewish unbelief compromise God’sfaithfulness, jeopardizing God’s promise to Abraham? No, foraccording to Paul, not every descendant of Abraham inherits thecovenant blessings (e.g., Ishmael and Esau [9:6–26]). So, ifGentiles are grafted into the tree of Abraham’s descendants byfaith, and Jews who deny the righteousness of God in Christ arebranches broken off the tree of promise, does this mean that God hasgiven up on Israel (11:11–24)? No, because Paul believes that“Israel has experienced a hardening in part” (11:25).Eventually, the hearts of the Jews will soften to the gospel, becausethey will be jealous of God’s covenant blessing extended toGentile believers, and “all Israel will be saved” in theend; the natural branches cut off from the olive tree will be graftedback into Abraham’s family tree (11:11–15, 24–32).Here Paul inverts the Jewish eschatological expectation that Gentileswill be saved before the end of the world because of their jealousyof God’s blessings for his people, Israel (Isa. 19:23–25;49:6–7). In the end, then, God’s mercy triumphs over alldisobedience (whether Jewish or Gentile) because “God’sgifts and his call are irrevocable” (Rom. 11:29).
Presentthe body as a sacrifice (12:1–21) and submit to God (13:1–14).Because of God’s mercies for Jews and Gentiles, Paul appeals tothe house churches in Rome to sacrifice themselves for the cause ofChrist (12:1–2). What does a life of surrender look like? Itmeans keeping overinflated self-esteem in check (12:3) and affirmingthe diversity of the body of Christ, meeting the needs of allmembers, and overcoming evil with good by avoiding revenge, helpingenemies, and submitting to Roman law (12:4–13:7). Love is thekey to this life of sacrifice, in which the believer wears the LordJesus Christ like an armor of righteousness, knowing that the day ofsalvation draws near (13:8–14). In the meantime, believers mustaccept one another “just as Christ accepted you, in order tobring praise to God” (15:7). Indeed, for Paul, Christ is thesupreme example of sacrifice because he “did not pleasehimself” but rather took on the sins of the circumcised and theuncircumcised (15:3–9).
Acceptone another (14:1–15:13).Thus, since Christ was a servant to Jews and Gentiles, how much moreJewish and Gentile Christ believers should serve one another. Jewishmembers of the Roman church should quit judging believers who eatmeat, drink wine, and recognize every day as a holy day (14:1–12).Gentile members should stop parading their freedom to eat and drinkwhatever they want (14:13–23): “If your brother or sisteris distressed because of what you eat, you are no longer acting inlove. Do not by your eating destroy someone for whom Christ died”(14:15). Regarding these gray areas, each person should operateaccording to his or her own conviction before God (14:22–23).But when it comes to the bonds of fellowship, Paul encourages them tohave “the same attitude of mind toward each other that ChristJesus had” (15:5). So Paul’s innocuous request of thesegregated house churches may reveal a unifying strategy: “Greetone another with a holy kiss” (16:16).
Rabbinic commentary on the Hebrew Bible, either the text or abiblical event. “Midrash” (pl. “midrashim”)is a noun derived from the verb darash, meaning “to seek”or “to inquire.” “Midrash” can refer to thecommentary on a single passage, such as a midrash on Gen. 1, or to awhole collection of midrashim, such as Genesis Rabbah. It may alsorefer to the process by which ancient rabbis interpreted Scripture.Rabbinic midrash seeks theological and halakic answers tocontemporary concerns; thus, it is concerned with the application ofScripture to various aspects of life.
RabbinicMidrash
Midrashuses Scripture to interpret Scripture and uses the Bible as a whole,unified book. Although context is not ignored altogether, mid-rashjuxtaposes verses from throughout the Hebrew Bible in order toilluminate a given text or illustrate a point. Verses are strungtogether to elucidate a theme that the text suggests eitherimplicitly or explicitly. Within this system of Scriptureinterpreting Scripture, the Pentateuch holds pride of place as thecenter of the biblical witness. In rabbinic midrash, often theProphets and the Writings do not have independent voices separatefrom the Pentateuch but serve a supporting role.
Attimes, the juxtaposition of verses that occur in midrash seemsarbitrary, but this is not the case. A set of midrashic rules,middot, governs how the verses of Scripture are to be used and howargumentation is to be formed. Over time, the rules became moreelaborate, but their earliest statement is attributed to the pre–AD70 rabbi Hillel in the Babylonian Talmud. He lists seven rules:
1.Argument from the less significant to more significant, and viceversa.
2.Argument by analogy when Scripture uses identical expressions.
3.A statement in one verse applies to all topically related verses.
4.Same as the principle in three, but derived from two verses, not justone.
5.Argument from general to particular, and vice versa.
6.Argument from a similar expression found in another passage.
7.Argument from context.
Therabbinic rules of scriptural interpretation are similar to rules forHellenistic rhetoric and Roman legal argument and thus reflectHellenistic and Roman influence.
Rabbinicmidrash can be characterized broadly as halakic (developing rules forSabbath observance, ritual purity, sacrifice, etc.) and haggadic(theological, ethical, and whatever does not fall under halakic).Some bodies of rabbinic midrash explore a book of the Bible more orless verse by verse, and others are topical. Some midrashic works arehomiletical in nature; they preserve sermon material from synagogueservices.
Midrashin the Bible
Althoughthe large compilations of mid-rash are rabbinic and are later thanthe Bible, midrashic material is also found much earlier. Midrash hasits origins in the Bible. The clearest example is Chronicles, whichin many respects is a midrash on Samuel and Kings. At Qumran, we findliterature that can be classified as rewritten Scripture, such as theTemple Scroll, the book of Jubilees, and the Genesis Apocryphon,which have midrashic features. The Qumran Pesharim are alsomidrashic, although of a less sophisticated nature than the laterrabbinic midrash, and seem to employ the middot.
TheNT contains examples of midrashic material. Jesus’ teaching inthe Gospels includes some midrashic material. In Luke 4:16–21,Jesus reads from the scroll of Isaiah and interprets the passage asapplying to himself. Jesus is delivering a petikhah, a shortexposition on a biblical text outside the main synagogue sermon. Whendebating with the Sadducees over the resurrection, Jesus givesmidrashic comment to Exod. 3:6 (Luke 20:27–40). The apostlePaul engages in midrash even more explicitly: for example, he appliesDeut. 25:4, concerning not muzzling an ox while it is threshinggrain, to the idea that a minister is worthy of being paid for work(1Cor. 9:9; 1Tim. 5:18). Paul is arguing from the lesserto the greater in his application of Torah to his contemporarysituation.
Themost extended midrash in the NT isthe book of Hebrews. Forexample, in Heb. 1–2 the writer applies numerous quotationsfrom the Psalter to Jesus in order to show how he is greater than theangels. In Heb. 4 the writer, through an interpretation of Ps. 95:11,does a midrash on entering into God’s rest, by which he appliesGod’s resting from his work (Gen. 2:2) to Christians’entering that rest because of the unbelief of Israel in thewilderness. It appears that the author is forming an argument byanalogy in relating Gen. 2:2 and Ps. 95:11.
Itcan be demonstrated that Jews employed midrashic techniques in theirinterpretation of Scriptures centuries before the earliest rabbinicmidrash compilations were created. We see these techniques in QumranPesharim, Philo’s writings, and in the NT. The rabbis made useof long-established interpretive techniques and made them moresophisticated. The difference between Qumranite, ancient Christian,and rabbinic interpretation of Scripture was one of emphasis. For theQumranites, all Scripture had to speak of their community, which wasthe true, believing community in the end of days. For the Christians,all Scripture had to speak of Jesus and the salvation that hebrought. For the rabbis, all Scripture upheld Torah and obedience tothat Torah as the center of Jewish life.
An occupation or profession is the usual work or business inwhich a person engages for the sake of earning a living. In biblicaltimes, family or social standing most often determined occupation.This was particularly true for occupations tied to land, such asplanting crops and raising animals, since land in ancient Israel waspassed down within the tribe, normally from fathers to sons (Josh.14:9; Ezek. 46:18). Sometimes daughters also received a share in thefamily inheritance (Josh. 17:6). Most people gained their livelihoodfrom their family’s land, and those who did not have land hiredthemselves out to work for wages (Deut. 24:14). A son normallylearned his trade from his father (Gen. 47:3; 2Kings 4:18;Matt. 4:21) and continued in that occupation unless called into God’sservice (1Kings 19:19–21; Jer. 1:5; Matt. 4:22).
Cicero,writing around the time of the NT, considered occupations such as taxcollector, laborer, and fisherman to be vulgar. Conversely,professions such as teacher, doctor, and wholesale trader were morehonorable, with landowner being the most respectable and profitableprofession (Off. 1.42).
Agricultureand Farming
Farmingis the earliest recorded occupation in the Bible, as the first manwas called to work and keep the garden (Gen. 2:15). Even after theexile from Eden because of sin, Adam worked the ground for food, asdid Cain, his firstborn son (Gen. 3:17–18; 4:2). The openingchapters of the Bible establish a fundamental link between “man”(’adam) and the “ground” (’adamah). After theflood, Noah established himself as a “man of the soil”(’ish ha’adamah) by planting a vineyard (Gen. 9:20). KingUzziah “loved the soil” (’oheb ’adamah) andso employed people to work in his fields and vineyards (2Chron.26:10).
Goddemonstrated his covenant commitment to Isaac by blessing him with anincredible harvest (Gen. 26:12), and he promised to prosper Israel’sfarms if the people obeyed him (Deut. 28:4) and to curse the fruit oftheir ground if they disobeyed (Deut. 28:18). The OT ideal was foreveryone to live “under their own vine and under their own figtree” (1Kings 4:25; Mic. 4:4). According to Prov. 28:19,the diligent farmer would have abundant food.
Jesus’parables frequently employed agricultural imagery that would havebeen readily understandable in first-century Palestine, where manypeople were farmers (cf. Mark 4:1–9; 12:1–11) and someowned land (Acts 4:34). The people living around Jerusalem at thistime engaged in agriculture, soil cultivation, and cattle raising(Let. Aris. 107–112).
Herdingand Hunting
Herdinganimals is the second-oldest occupation recorded in Scripture (afterfarming), and raising flocks and herds continued to be one of themost common and important professions throughout biblical times. Abelis the first “keeper of sheep” in the Bible (Gen. 4:2NRSV). Several generations later, Jabal pioneered the nomadic herdinglifestyle (Gen. 4:20). The patriarchs were shepherds (Gen. 47:3), aswere Moses (Exod. 3:1), David (1Sam. 17:34), and many others inthe OT. Josephus acknowledged that “feeding of sheep was theemployment of our forefathers in the most ancient ages”(Ag.Ap. 1.91). While men typically worked as shepherds andherdsmen, the occupation was also open to women, such as Rachel,whose fathers owned sheep (Gen. 29:9). Shepherds were present atJesus’ birth (Luke 2:8–20), and Jesus’ teachingsuggests that shepherding was a common occupation in Palestine (cf.Matt. 18:12; John 10:1–30).
Manypeople in biblical times hunted, either for food, sport, orprotection. The first recorded hunter is Nimrod, “a mightyhunter before the Lord” (Gen. 10:9). Ishmael was “anexpert with the bow” (Gen. 21:20 NRSV), while Esau was “askillful hunter, a man of the open country” who brought backwild game for food (25:27–28). The name of Pokereth-Hazzebaim,included in the genealogy of Solomon’s servants in Ezra 2:57,reflects his occupation as a “gazelle catcher” (cf.1Kings 4:23).
Buildersand Craftsmen
Cainwas the first person in the Bible to build a city (Gen. 4:17), andhis descendant Tubal-Cain was the first metalworker (4:22). Nimrodbuilt a number of cities (10:11–12), and the beginning ofNimrod’s kingdom was Babel (10:10), where the people gatheredtogether to build a city with brick (11:3). Builders in Mesopotamiaused baked brick and asphalt, while Israelite builders usuallypreferred the more readily available stone and mortar. After Joseph’sdeath, Israel was conscripted into forced labor in Egypt, whichinvolved building cities of brick and mortar (Exod. 1:11).
Therole of craftsmen in the construction of the tabernacle wasparticularly significant. Bezalel and Oholiab were “skilledworkers and designers” empowered by God for work on thetabernacle (Exod. 35:35). They engaged in “all kinds ofcrafts,” including artistic metalworking, masonry, carpentry,and weaving (Exod. 31:4–5; 38:23).
Kingsin Israel often commissioned important building projects (1Kings12:25; 15:22; 16:24; 2Chron. 26:9; Josephus, J.W. 1.401–2).Carpenters and stonemasons worked on David’s palace (2Sam.5:11). Solomon conscripted laborers to build the temple and alsoemployed carriers, stonecutters, craftsmen, and foremen to supervisethe work (1Kings 5:13–18). After the Babylonian exile,many Israelites were involved in rebuilding the temple and the wallof Jerusalem, which had been destroyed (Ezra 3:8; Neh. 4:16–18).These projects, directed by Zerubbabel and Nehemiah, utilized masons,carpenters, and other workers (Ezra 3:7).
Jesusis referred to as a tektōn (Mark 6:3) and as the son of a tektōn(Matt. 13:55), with tektōn usually translated “carpenter”by English versions. However,recent scholarshiphas demonstrated that Jesus was likely a builder, not a carpenter inthe modern sense of the term. In the LXX, the word tektōntypically translates a Hebrew word, kharash, used broadly to refer tocraftsmen working with stone, wood, or metal.
Musicians
Thefirst musician recorded in Scripture is Jubal, “the father ofall who play the stringed instruments and pipes” (Gen. 4:21).Musicians performed a variety of roles in ancient society, as they dotoday. Singers and instrumentalists were employed to celebratefestive occasions, often to provide accompaniment for dancing (Gen.31:27; Luke 15:25), to soothe the sick or distressed (1Sam.16:16), and to express lamentation (Job 30:31).
Musiciansplayed an important role in leading God’s people in worship.The “director of music” is mentioned in the headings offifty-five psalms and Hab. 3:19. The most famous musician inScripture is David, “the singer of Israel’s psalms”(2Sam. 23:1 GW), who played the harp (1Sam. 16:18) andwrote or inspired at least seventy-three canonical psalms. Solomonwas also a notable songwriter and lover of music (1Kings 4:32).David appointed many Levites as singers and musicians to lead Israelin worship (1Chron. 15:16; 23:5). The musicians played lyres,harps, cymbals, and trumpets (2Chron. 5:12).
Government,Politics, and Military
Beforethe monarchy, there were no formal government offices. Under Moses, agroup of seventy elders in Israel served as leaders and officials,and these men were to carry out Moses’ decrees and judge thepeople on most matters (Exod. 18:20–22; Num. 11:16). AfterJoshua’s death, God raised up judges to rescue Israel fromforeign enemies and lead the people (Judg. 2:16) until the time ofSamuel, when Saul was made king (1Sam. 11:15).
Kingsin Israel employed various officials. In 2Sam. 8:16–18,Joab is listed first among David’s officials, which suggeststhat the military commander was second in authority after the king.Under Solomon, the leader of the army is called “commander inchief” (1Kings 4:4). The royal cabinet included a numberof key advisers, including the recorder, the secretary, and the“confidant” of the king (cf. 2Sam. 16:16). The OTdoes not specify the precise roles of these officials. The recorderwas among the highest governmental positions and served as a royalcounselor. In Hebrew, mazkir (“recorder”) is a cognatenoun to the verb zkr (“to remember”), which suggests thatthis official may have managed and preserved public records (2Kings18:18; Isa. 36:22). The main task of the king’s secretary orscribe (sop̱er)was to write down (sapar) official state documents (2Sam.8:17), and he advised the king and also provided financial oversight(2Kings 12:10). Recorders and secretaries apparently were welleducated and multilingual, as was the palace administrator (2Kings18:18, 26). Solomon’s officials included supervisors of thepalace and the forced labor, as well as governors who suppliedprovisions for the king’s household (1Kings 4:6–7).The OT mentions cupbearers in Israel’s government and in otheradministrations (Gen. 40:1; 1Kings 10:5; Neh. 1:11). Thecupbearer served as the royal wine taster; he protected the king frombeing poisoned and had direct access to the monarch.
Inthe Roman Empire, the emperor was absolute ruler (1Pet. 2:17),with the senate next in authority. Proconsuls held judicial andmilitary authority over larger provinces (Acts 18:12), prefects(governors) administered smaller provinces (Matt. 27:2), withtetrarchs over one-fourth of a province (Luke 3:1).
Christiansin NT times engaged in civil service. Erastus was a financial officerin Corinth (Rom. 16:23), and he may be the same Erastus commemoratedin an inscription from this period who held the office of aedile. Theproconsul Sergius Paulus (Acts 13:7); Manaen, a close friend of HerodAntipas (Acts 13:1); and members of Caesar’s household (Phil.4:22) were also Christian public leaders.
Tradeand Economics
Fromearliest times, people have exchanged goods and property. WhenAbraham purchased Ephron’s field, his silver was measured“according to the weight current among the merchants”(Gen. 23:16), which suggests that a recognized system of publictrading was in place during the time of the patriarchs. Traders ofcommodities such as spices traveled along caravan routes betweensouthern Arabia and Egypt, and these traders often acquired slavesalong the way (Gen. 37:28). Solomon employed royal merchants to buyand sell goods (1Kings 10:28).
Inthe first century, Jews were engaged broadly in economic life aslandowners, artisans, merchants, traders, bankers, and slaves.Several of Jesus’ disciples were fishermen (Matt. 4:18). Lukewas a physician, a well-educated and respectable professional (Col.4:14). Lydia was a dealer in purple cloth (Acts 16:14). Paul, Aquila,and Priscilla worked as tentmakers (Acts 18:3). In the Roman Empire,commerce and pagan religion often intermingled. Merchants oftenformed trade guilds, where membership sometimes required religiousand moral compromise. In Ephesus, silversmiths and craftsmen inrelated trades turned significant profit through their connectionswith the local Artemis cult (Acts 19:24–27).
Jesusfrequently spent time with tax collectors, such as Levi (also called“Matthew”) (Matt. 9:9; Mark 2:14). Tax collectors were adespised group because often they became wealthy by taking advantageof the Roman taxation system, which allowed them to charge commissionon taxes collected (Luke 19:2, 8). Jesus’ parable of thetalents references bankers who offered interest on deposits collected(Matt. 25:27), and Rev. 3:17–18 alludes to the fact thatLaodicea was a financial center with a significant banking system.
Servantsand Slaves
Inthe OT, ’ebed most often designates a slave or servant, whoseoccupation involves work (’abad ) as a subordinate. Someservants held very important positions in their master’shousehold (Gen. 24:2), while many others toiled in hard labor (Job7:2). Israelites were not to enslave their kinfolk, but they couldtake slaves from other nations. Fellow Israelites who became poorcould serve as hired workers, but they were to be released along withtheir children at the Jubilee because God had brought Israel out fromEgyptian slavery and they belonged to God as his servants (Lev.25:39–46).
Slavesin the Roman world were property like goods or cattle, possessed byanother (Dio Chrysostom, 2Serv. lib. 24). Unlike modern slaverypractices, race played no factor in the Roman institution of slavery.Slaves were kidnapped and sold in NT times (1Tim. 1:10; Rev.18:13), but the majority of slaves were so by birth. The mostprominent slave in the NT is Onesimus, for whom Paul intercedes withhis master, Philemon (Philem. 10, 16). Believing slaves were to obeytheir earthly masters “as slaves of Christ” (Eph. 6:5–6),but the NT stressed the equality of slave and free in Christ (Gal.3:28). Paul called himself a “servant [doulos] of Christ Jesus”(Rom. 1:1).
ReligiousService
MostIsraelites engaged in professional religious service were Levites(Num. 3:12), including Moses, Aaron, and the priests in Aaron’sline (Exod. 6:19–20; 35:19). The priests offered sacrifices toGod on behalf of the people (Heb. 5:1). Under the priests’direction, the Levites were charged with caring for the tabernacleand its furnishings (Num. 1:49; 1Chron. 23:32) and carrying theark of the covenant (1Chron. 15:2). They were set apart toserve in God’s presence (Deut. 18:7) and to lead the people inworship (2Chron. 5:12). Further, priests often played animportant advisory role to Israel’s kings (2Sam. 8:17;1Kings 4:5; 2Kings 12:2).
InIsrael, people went to seers and prophets to inquire of God (1Sam.9:9), for they received and communicated God’s word (2Sam.24:11; Jer. 37:6). Sometimes individuals are mentioned as prophets,and other times the prophets are discussed as an organized group(1Sam. 19:20; 1Kings 22:6).
TheNT references a number of ministerial offices (1Cor. 12:28;Eph. 4:11; 1Tim. 3:1–12). Not all ministers were paid,though teachers and preachers had a right to “receive theirliving from the gospel” (1Cor. 9:14–15; cf. 1Tim.5:17). Apostles were those sent out by Jesus as his representatives.The term apostolos refers particularly to the twelve apostles whowere with Jesus during his earthly ministry and who were witnesses ofhis resurrection (Acts 1:21–22). Paul referred to himself as anapostle (Gal. 1:1; 1Cor. 1:1), and he calls Epaph-ro-di-tus andothers “messengers” (apostoloi) in the churches (2Cor.8:23; Phil. 2:25). Prophets have the spiritual gift of prophecy andspeak to strengthen, encourage, and comfort the church (Acts 15:32;1Cor. 14:3). Overseers (also called “elders” or“pastors”) are qualified leaders who teach, shepherd, andexercise authority in the church (1Tim. 3:1; 1Pet. 5:2).Evangelists and missionaries proclaim the gospel and aim to winconverts to Christ (Acts 21:8; 2Tim. 4:5). Those ministers whoare faithful to the gospel deserve support (3John8).
An occupation or profession is the usual work or business inwhich a person engages for the sake of earning a living. In biblicaltimes, family or social standing most often determined occupation.This was particularly true for occupations tied to land, such asplanting crops and raising animals, since land in ancient Israel waspassed down within the tribe, normally from fathers to sons (Josh.14:9; Ezek. 46:18). Sometimes daughters also received a share in thefamily inheritance (Josh. 17:6). Most people gained their livelihoodfrom their family’s land, and those who did not have land hiredthemselves out to work for wages (Deut. 24:14). A son normallylearned his trade from his father (Gen. 47:3; 2Kings 4:18;Matt. 4:21) and continued in that occupation unless called into God’sservice (1Kings 19:19–21; Jer. 1:5; Matt. 4:22).
Cicero,writing around the time of the NT, considered occupations such as taxcollector, laborer, and fisherman to be vulgar. Conversely,professions such as teacher, doctor, and wholesale trader were morehonorable, with landowner being the most respectable and profitableprofession (Off. 1.42).
Agricultureand Farming
Farmingis the earliest recorded occupation in the Bible, as the first manwas called to work and keep the garden (Gen. 2:15). Even after theexile from Eden because of sin, Adam worked the ground for food, asdid Cain, his firstborn son (Gen. 3:17–18; 4:2). The openingchapters of the Bible establish a fundamental link between “man”(’adam) and the “ground” (’adamah). After theflood, Noah established himself as a “man of the soil”(’ish ha’adamah) by planting a vineyard (Gen. 9:20). KingUzziah “loved the soil” (’oheb ’adamah) andso employed people to work in his fields and vineyards (2Chron.26:10).
Goddemonstrated his covenant commitment to Isaac by blessing him with anincredible harvest (Gen. 26:12), and he promised to prosper Israel’sfarms if the people obeyed him (Deut. 28:4) and to curse the fruit oftheir ground if they disobeyed (Deut. 28:18). The OT ideal was foreveryone to live “under their own vine and under their own figtree” (1Kings 4:25; Mic. 4:4). According to Prov. 28:19,the diligent farmer would have abundant food.
Jesus’parables frequently employed agricultural imagery that would havebeen readily understandable in first-century Palestine, where manypeople were farmers (cf. Mark 4:1–9; 12:1–11) and someowned land (Acts 4:34). The people living around Jerusalem at thistime engaged in agriculture, soil cultivation, and cattle raising(Let. Aris. 107–112).
Herdingand Hunting
Herdinganimals is the second-oldest occupation recorded in Scripture (afterfarming), and raising flocks and herds continued to be one of themost common and important professions throughout biblical times. Abelis the first “keeper of sheep” in the Bible (Gen. 4:2NRSV). Several generations later, Jabal pioneered the nomadic herdinglifestyle (Gen. 4:20). The patriarchs were shepherds (Gen. 47:3), aswere Moses (Exod. 3:1), David (1Sam. 17:34), and many others inthe OT. Josephus acknowledged that “feeding of sheep was theemployment of our forefathers in the most ancient ages”(Ag.Ap. 1.91). While men typically worked as shepherds andherdsmen, the occupation was also open to women, such as Rachel,whose fathers owned sheep (Gen. 29:9). Shepherds were present atJesus’ birth (Luke 2:8–20), and Jesus’ teachingsuggests that shepherding was a common occupation in Palestine (cf.Matt. 18:12; John 10:1–30).
Manypeople in biblical times hunted, either for food, sport, orprotection. The first recorded hunter is Nimrod, “a mightyhunter before the Lord” (Gen. 10:9). Ishmael was “anexpert with the bow” (Gen. 21:20 NRSV), while Esau was “askillful hunter, a man of the open country” who brought backwild game for food (25:27–28). The name of Pokereth-Hazzebaim,included in the genealogy of Solomon’s servants in Ezra 2:57,reflects his occupation as a “gazelle catcher” (cf.1Kings 4:23).
Buildersand Craftsmen
Cainwas the first person in the Bible to build a city (Gen. 4:17), andhis descendant Tubal-Cain was the first metalworker (4:22). Nimrodbuilt a number of cities (10:11–12), and the beginning ofNimrod’s kingdom was Babel (10:10), where the people gatheredtogether to build a city with brick (11:3). Builders in Mesopotamiaused baked brick and asphalt, while Israelite builders usuallypreferred the more readily available stone and mortar. After Joseph’sdeath, Israel was conscripted into forced labor in Egypt, whichinvolved building cities of brick and mortar (Exod. 1:11).
Therole of craftsmen in the construction of the tabernacle wasparticularly significant. Bezalel and Oholiab were “skilledworkers and designers” empowered by God for work on thetabernacle (Exod. 35:35). They engaged in “all kinds ofcrafts,” including artistic metalworking, masonry, carpentry,and weaving (Exod. 31:4–5; 38:23).
Kingsin Israel often commissioned important building projects (1Kings12:25; 15:22; 16:24; 2Chron. 26:9; Josephus, J.W. 1.401–2).Carpenters and stonemasons worked on David’s palace (2Sam.5:11). Solomon conscripted laborers to build the temple and alsoemployed carriers, stonecutters, craftsmen, and foremen to supervisethe work (1Kings 5:13–18). After the Babylonian exile,many Israelites were involved in rebuilding the temple and the wallof Jerusalem, which had been destroyed (Ezra 3:8; Neh. 4:16–18).These projects, directed by Zerubbabel and Nehemiah, utilized masons,carpenters, and other workers (Ezra 3:7).
Jesusis referred to as a tektōn (Mark 6:3) and as the son of a tektōn(Matt. 13:55), with tektōn usually translated “carpenter”by English versions. However,recent scholarshiphas demonstrated that Jesus was likely a builder, not a carpenter inthe modern sense of the term. In the LXX, the word tektōntypically translates a Hebrew word, kharash, used broadly to refer tocraftsmen working with stone, wood, or metal.
Musicians
Thefirst musician recorded in Scripture is Jubal, “the father ofall who play the stringed instruments and pipes” (Gen. 4:21).Musicians performed a variety of roles in ancient society, as they dotoday. Singers and instrumentalists were employed to celebratefestive occasions, often to provide accompaniment for dancing (Gen.31:27; Luke 15:25), to soothe the sick or distressed (1Sam.16:16), and to express lamentation (Job 30:31).
Musiciansplayed an important role in leading God’s people in worship.The “director of music” is mentioned in the headings offifty-five psalms and Hab. 3:19. The most famous musician inScripture is David, “the singer of Israel’s psalms”(2Sam. 23:1 GW), who played the harp (1Sam. 16:18) andwrote or inspired at least seventy-three canonical psalms. Solomonwas also a notable songwriter and lover of music (1Kings 4:32).David appointed many Levites as singers and musicians to lead Israelin worship (1Chron. 15:16; 23:5). The musicians played lyres,harps, cymbals, and trumpets (2Chron. 5:12).
Government,Politics, and Military
Beforethe monarchy, there were no formal government offices. Under Moses, agroup of seventy elders in Israel served as leaders and officials,and these men were to carry out Moses’ decrees and judge thepeople on most matters (Exod. 18:20–22; Num. 11:16). AfterJoshua’s death, God raised up judges to rescue Israel fromforeign enemies and lead the people (Judg. 2:16) until the time ofSamuel, when Saul was made king (1Sam. 11:15).
Kingsin Israel employed various officials. In 2Sam. 8:16–18,Joab is listed first among David’s officials, which suggeststhat the military commander was second in authority after the king.Under Solomon, the leader of the army is called “commander inchief” (1Kings 4:4). The royal cabinet included a numberof key advisers, including the recorder, the secretary, and the“confidant” of the king (cf. 2Sam. 16:16). The OTdoes not specify the precise roles of these officials. The recorderwas among the highest governmental positions and served as a royalcounselor. In Hebrew, mazkir (“recorder”) is a cognatenoun to the verb zkr (“to remember”), which suggests thatthis official may have managed and preserved public records (2Kings18:18; Isa. 36:22). The main task of the king’s secretary orscribe (sop̱er)was to write down (sapar) official state documents (2Sam.8:17), and he advised the king and also provided financial oversight(2Kings 12:10). Recorders and secretaries apparently were welleducated and multilingual, as was the palace administrator (2Kings18:18, 26). Solomon’s officials included supervisors of thepalace and the forced labor, as well as governors who suppliedprovisions for the king’s household (1Kings 4:6–7).The OT mentions cupbearers in Israel’s government and in otheradministrations (Gen. 40:1; 1Kings 10:5; Neh. 1:11). Thecupbearer served as the royal wine taster; he protected the king frombeing poisoned and had direct access to the monarch.
Inthe Roman Empire, the emperor was absolute ruler (1Pet. 2:17),with the senate next in authority. Proconsuls held judicial andmilitary authority over larger provinces (Acts 18:12), prefects(governors) administered smaller provinces (Matt. 27:2), withtetrarchs over one-fourth of a province (Luke 3:1).
Christiansin NT times engaged in civil service. Erastus was a financial officerin Corinth (Rom. 16:23), and he may be the same Erastus commemoratedin an inscription from this period who held the office of aedile. Theproconsul Sergius Paulus (Acts 13:7); Manaen, a close friend of HerodAntipas (Acts 13:1); and members of Caesar’s household (Phil.4:22) were also Christian public leaders.
Tradeand Economics
Fromearliest times, people have exchanged goods and property. WhenAbraham purchased Ephron’s field, his silver was measured“according to the weight current among the merchants”(Gen. 23:16), which suggests that a recognized system of publictrading was in place during the time of the patriarchs. Traders ofcommodities such as spices traveled along caravan routes betweensouthern Arabia and Egypt, and these traders often acquired slavesalong the way (Gen. 37:28). Solomon employed royal merchants to buyand sell goods (1Kings 10:28).
Inthe first century, Jews were engaged broadly in economic life aslandowners, artisans, merchants, traders, bankers, and slaves.Several of Jesus’ disciples were fishermen (Matt. 4:18). Lukewas a physician, a well-educated and respectable professional (Col.4:14). Lydia was a dealer in purple cloth (Acts 16:14). Paul, Aquila,and Priscilla worked as tentmakers (Acts 18:3). In the Roman Empire,commerce and pagan religion often intermingled. Merchants oftenformed trade guilds, where membership sometimes required religiousand moral compromise. In Ephesus, silversmiths and craftsmen inrelated trades turned significant profit through their connectionswith the local Artemis cult (Acts 19:24–27).
Jesusfrequently spent time with tax collectors, such as Levi (also called“Matthew”) (Matt. 9:9; Mark 2:14). Tax collectors were adespised group because often they became wealthy by taking advantageof the Roman taxation system, which allowed them to charge commissionon taxes collected (Luke 19:2, 8). Jesus’ parable of thetalents references bankers who offered interest on deposits collected(Matt. 25:27), and Rev. 3:17–18 alludes to the fact thatLaodicea was a financial center with a significant banking system.
Servantsand Slaves
Inthe OT, ’ebed most often designates a slave or servant, whoseoccupation involves work (’abad ) as a subordinate. Someservants held very important positions in their master’shousehold (Gen. 24:2), while many others toiled in hard labor (Job7:2). Israelites were not to enslave their kinfolk, but they couldtake slaves from other nations. Fellow Israelites who became poorcould serve as hired workers, but they were to be released along withtheir children at the Jubilee because God had brought Israel out fromEgyptian slavery and they belonged to God as his servants (Lev.25:39–46).
Slavesin the Roman world were property like goods or cattle, possessed byanother (Dio Chrysostom, 2Serv. lib. 24). Unlike modern slaverypractices, race played no factor in the Roman institution of slavery.Slaves were kidnapped and sold in NT times (1Tim. 1:10; Rev.18:13), but the majority of slaves were so by birth. The mostprominent slave in the NT is Onesimus, for whom Paul intercedes withhis master, Philemon (Philem. 10, 16). Believing slaves were to obeytheir earthly masters “as slaves of Christ” (Eph. 6:5–6),but the NT stressed the equality of slave and free in Christ (Gal.3:28). Paul called himself a “servant [doulos] of Christ Jesus”(Rom. 1:1).
ReligiousService
MostIsraelites engaged in professional religious service were Levites(Num. 3:12), including Moses, Aaron, and the priests in Aaron’sline (Exod. 6:19–20; 35:19). The priests offered sacrifices toGod on behalf of the people (Heb. 5:1). Under the priests’direction, the Levites were charged with caring for the tabernacleand its furnishings (Num. 1:49; 1Chron. 23:32) and carrying theark of the covenant (1Chron. 15:2). They were set apart toserve in God’s presence (Deut. 18:7) and to lead the people inworship (2Chron. 5:12). Further, priests often played animportant advisory role to Israel’s kings (2Sam. 8:17;1Kings 4:5; 2Kings 12:2).
InIsrael, people went to seers and prophets to inquire of God (1Sam.9:9), for they received and communicated God’s word (2Sam.24:11; Jer. 37:6). Sometimes individuals are mentioned as prophets,and other times the prophets are discussed as an organized group(1Sam. 19:20; 1Kings 22:6).
TheNT references a number of ministerial offices (1Cor. 12:28;Eph. 4:11; 1Tim. 3:1–12). Not all ministers were paid,though teachers and preachers had a right to “receive theirliving from the gospel” (1Cor. 9:14–15; cf. 1Tim.5:17). Apostles were those sent out by Jesus as his representatives.The term apostolos refers particularly to the twelve apostles whowere with Jesus during his earthly ministry and who were witnesses ofhis resurrection (Acts 1:21–22). Paul referred to himself as anapostle (Gal. 1:1; 1Cor. 1:1), and he calls Epaph-ro-di-tus andothers “messengers” (apostoloi) in the churches (2Cor.8:23; Phil. 2:25). Prophets have the spiritual gift of prophecy andspeak to strengthen, encourage, and comfort the church (Acts 15:32;1Cor. 14:3). Overseers (also called “elders” or“pastors”) are qualified leaders who teach, shepherd, andexercise authority in the church (1Tim. 3:1; 1Pet. 5:2).Evangelists and missionaries proclaim the gospel and aim to winconverts to Christ (Acts 21:8; 2Tim. 4:5). Those ministers whoare faithful to the gospel deserve support (3John8).
A Pharisee commissioned by Jesus Christ to preach the gospelto Gentiles. His Jewish name was “Saul” (Acts 9:4; 13:9),but he preferred using his Roman name, especially when he signed hisletters. Actually, “Paul” was his last name. Romancitizens had three names; the last name was the family name, calledthe “cognomen.” We do not know Paul’s first andmiddle Roman name, but his last name is derived from the Latin Paulus(Sergius Paulus, the proconsul of Cyprus, had the same family name[13:7]). Most people were known and called by their last name becausegroup identity was more important in the first-century Mediterraneanworld than individual recognition. For example, when speakingpublicly, Paul did not use his favorite self-designations, “apostleto the Gentiles” or “slave of Christ Jesus”;instead, he identified himself as a Jew, a citizen of Tarsus, astudent of Gamaliel (21:39; 22:3). His social identity was embeddedin his ethnicity, his nativity, his religion. However, even thosecategories cannot adequately describe Paul. He was a Jew but also aRoman citizen. Tarsus was his home (11:25–26), but he claimedthat he was brought up in Jerusalem. He spoke Aramaic but wrote Greekletters. He was once a Pharisee but then preached a circumcision-freegospel to Gentiles. In many respects, Paul is an enigma. Who was he?What did he believe? Why did he think he had to leave his previouslife in Judaism to become the apostle to the Gentiles? Why is he oneof the major contributors to the NT even though he was not a followerof the historical Jesus?
Paul’sLife
Paulas a converted Pharisee.Paul spent the first half of his life as a Pharisee. The Phariseeswere a Jewish sect that emphasized obedience to the law of God as themeans of maintaining holiness. Practically all Jews believed thatthey should obey the law, but what made the Pharisees unique wastheir emphasis on applying all commandments, even those intended onlyfor Levites and priests, to all Jews. For example, priests wererequired to keep certain rituals of hand washing before they ate(Lev. 22:1–9; cf. Exod 30:19–21; 40:31–32). So thePharisees extended these requirements to all Israel in order to showGod how serious they were about obeying the law (Mark 7:3–4).Obedience was crucial to God’s blessing; disobedience broughtGod’s curse. Therefore, the Pharisees established manytraditions, going beyond the letter of the law, to ensure compliance.To what extent the Jewish people followed the example of thePharisees is debated, but certainly it appeared to the people that noone was more zealous for God and his law than the Pharisees—azeal that would compel them to join in the stoning of obviousoffenders (Lev. 24:14; Acts 7:58). As a Pharisee, Paul’s zealfor the law led him to persecute Jewish Christians, not only inJerusalem but also outside Israel, in places such as Damascus (Acts8:3; 9:1–3; 22:4–5; Gal. 1:13–14; Phil. 3:6).Neither Paul nor Luke explains what the Pharisees found objectionableabout this Jewish movement known as “the Way.” In fact,Paul’s teacher, Gamaliel, advised the Sanhedrin to ignoremembers of the Way and not make trouble for them (Acts5:34–39)—advice obviously not taken by Paul. Perhaps itwas Jesus’ reputation as a lawbreaker or the fact that he haddied a cursed death according to the law that convinced Paul toimprison Jesus’ disciples (Deut. 21:23). Whatever the reason,Paul saw his role as persecutor of the church as the ultimate proofof his blamelessness under the law (Phil. 3:6).
AfterChrist appeared to Paul on the road to Damascus, everything changed:his life, his mission, his worldview (Acts 9:3–30). Paul leftPharisaism and immediately began preaching the gospel (Gal. 1:11–17).Those whom he persecuted were now friends. His zeal for the law wasreplaced by his zeal for Christ. It was a radical reversal. The rumorspread quickly: “The man who formerly persecuted us is nowpreaching the faith he once tried to destroy” (Gal. 1:23). Whythe sudden change? Some think that it is what Paul saw—theglorified Messiah—that changed his perspective. Theresurrection of Christ turned the curse of the cross into a blessing,death into life, shame into honor. The appearance of Christ(Christophany) was a revelation, an apocalypse, an end-of-the-worldevent for Paul. Old things passed away; everything became new (2Cor.5:17). What was divided under the old age of the law—Jews andGentiles, male and female, slave and free—was united in Christ.Other scholars emphasize it is what Paul heard during theChristophany that changed the course of his life. Paul interpretedChrist’s charge, “Go, preach to the Gentiles,” as aprophetic calling, perhaps even fulfilling Isaiah’s end-timevision of salvation of the whole world (Isa. 49:1–7; Gal.1:15–16). Thus, Paul’s westward push to take the gospelto the coastlands (Spain) was by divine design (Rom. 15:15–24).God commissioned Saul the Pharisee of the Jews to become Paul theapostle to the Gentiles because “the culmination of the ageshas come” (1Cor. 10:11).
Paul’sministry.By our best estimates, Paul spent about thirty years preaching thegospel of Jesus Christ (AD 34–67)—a ministry that can bedivided roughly into three decades. The first decade of his ministry(AD 34–46) has been called the “silent years,” aswe have few details from Acts or the Pauline Epistles about hisactivities. For example, we know that he preached in Damascus for awhile and spent some time in Arabia (a total of three years [Gal.1:17–18]). He made a quick trip to Jerusalem to meet Peter andJames the brother of Jesus. Then he returned home to Tarsus,evidently preaching there for several years, until Barnabas broughthim to Antioch in Syria to help with the ministry of this mixedcongregation of Jews and Gentiles (Acts 9:26–30; 11:25–26).In the second decade of his ministry (AD 46–59), Paul spentmost of his life on the road, an itinerant ministry of preaching thegospel and planting churches from Cyprus to Corinth. For most of thethird decade (AD 59–67), Paul ministered the gospel fromprison, spending over two years imprisoned in Caesarea, another twoto three years in a Roman prison (Acts ends here), released for abrief time (two years?) before his final arrest and imprisonment inRome, where, according to church tradition, he was executed.
Duringhis itinerant ministry, Paul traveled Roman roads that led him tofree cities (Ephesus, Thessalonica, Athens) and Roman colonies(Pisidian Antioch, Iconium, Lystra, Derbe, Troas, Philippi, Corinth).Founding churches in urban centers afforded Paul more opportunitiesfor ministry and for his work of making and repairing tents.Traveling within the borders of the Roman Empire also provided abetter chance of protection as a citizen. At first, Paul and Barnabascovered familiar territory: Cyprus (Barnabas’s home region) andAnatolia (Paul’s home region). Then, with successive journeysPaul and other missionary companions branched out to Asia Minor,Macedonia, and Achaia. Some of the towns that Paul visited were smalland provincial (Derbe, Lystra); others were major cities of greateconomic and intellectual commerce (Ephesus, Corinth, Athens). In themidst of such cultural diversity, Paul found receptive ears among avariety of ethnic groups: Gauls, Phrygians and Lycaonians, Greeks,Romans, and Jews. Previously, Paul’s Gentile converts hadworshiped many gods (local, ethnic, and imperial), offered sacrificesat many shrines and temples, and joined in all the religiousfestivals (often involving immoral and ungodly practices). Afterbelieving the gospel, Paul’s predominantly Gentile churchesturned from their idolatrous ways to serve “the living and trueGod” (1Thess. 1:9). Their exclusive devotion to one Godquickly led to economic and political problems, for both Paul’sconverts and the cities of their residence. No more offerings forpatron gods, no more support for local synagogues or the imperialcult—Paul’s converts were often persecuted for theirnewly found faith by local religious guilds (idol makers!) and civicleaders courting Roman favor (Acts 17:6–9; 19:23–41;Phil. 1:27–30; 1Thess. 2:14–16). Indeed, Paul oftenwas run out of town as a troublemaker who preached a message thatthreatened both the Jewish and the Roman ways of life (Acts 16:19–24;Phil. 3:17–4:1). It is no wonder that Paul’s activitieseventually landed him in a Roman prison. It was only a matter of timebefore his reputation as a “lawbreaker” caught up withhim (Acts 21:21). But that did not stop Paul. Whether as a prisoneror a free man, Paul proclaimed the gospel of Jesus Christ until theday he died.
Paul’sGospel
Thesources of Paul’s gospel.Paul ministered his entire life without the benefit of literaryGospels. Most scholars think that the earliest Gospel, Mark, waswritten about the time that Paul was martyred. Since Paul was not adisciple of Jesus and probably never heard him speak or witnessed hisearthly ministry, how did Paul know what to preach? Where did Paulget his gospel? Paul mentioned four sources. First, he received oraltraditions about Jesus from other Christians (1Cor. 15:1–7).For him, hearing what happened during the Lord’s Supper fromthose who followed Jesus was the same as receiving it from the Lord(1Cor. 11:23). Second, the Hebrew Scriptures were a majorsource of Paul’s gospel (Acts 17:2). Illumined by the HolySpirit, Paul saw the gospel proclaimed in the law (Rom. 10:6–8)and predicted by the prophets (15:12). Third, in addition to theChristophany on the road to Damascus, Paul experienced revelations ofChrist as epiphanies of the gospel (Acts 18:9–10; 26:18). Thisgave Paul the authority to claim that he received his gospelpreeminently from Christ (Gal. 1:1, 16; 2:2). Fourth, Paul saw lifeexperiences as a resource for the gospel (2Cor. 12:7–10).As Paul made sense of what happened to him, he shared these insightswith his converts as proof that “Christ is speaking through me”(2Cor. 13:3–4). Indeed, Paul’s ways of doing thegospel were to be taught in all the churches as gospel truth (1Cor.4:17), because as far as Paul was concerned, the gospel of JesusChrist was the gospel according to Paul.
Thedeath and resurrection of Jesus Christ.The center of Paul’s gospel was the death and resurrection ofJesus. The essence of what he preached was “Jesus Christ andhim crucified” (1Cor. 2:2). Furthermore, the resurrectionof Christ was indispensable to the gospel that Paul proclaimed.Without the resurrection, Paul argued, faith in Christ would be vainbecause believers would still be dead in their sins with no hope oflife after death—the resurrection of their bodies (1Cor.15:13–19). Exploring the center, Paul used several metaphorsdrawn from everyday life to explain the significance of Christ’swork on the cross. Paul used legal terms such as“justification”/“righteousness,” “law,”and “condemnation” when he explained how sinners arejustified by faith in Christ. Paul described the implications ofChrist’s death in religious terms, using words such as“sacrifice,” “sin,”“propitiation”/“expiation” (NIV: “sacrificeof atonement”), and “temple,” which would makesense to both Jews and Gentiles. He also borrowed words from theworld of commerce, such as “redemption,” “purchase,”and “slave,” especially when he emphasized the obedienceof Christ, of Paul, of all believers. He even used military terms todescribe how God turned enemies into friends through the cross: the“reconciliation” that came through the “victory”of Christ’s death when he “disarmed” the “powers.”
Paulalso relied heavily on Jewish theology as he sorted out the work ofGod in Christ Jesus. Paul was a monotheist but attributed divinestatus to Jesus (Phil. 2:6). Paul believed that Israel was God’schosen people but maintained that his Gentile converts were theelect, calling them the “Israel of God” (Gal. 6:16). Paulaffirmed the law was holy but argued that holiness came only throughthe indwelling Spirit (Rom. 7:12; 1Thess. 4:7–8). Paulbelieved that the Messiah’s appearance would bring about theend of the world but looked forward to Christ’s parousia(“appearance”) at the end of time. In other words, theperson and work of Christ formed the lens through which Paulinterpreted the Bible and made sense of the world. Indeed, Paul’sgospel was built on a foundation of Jewish doctrine, Jesus tradition,and religious experience.
Away of life.For Paul, the gospel was more than a set of beliefs; it was a way oflife. To believe in Christ Jesus not only entailed accepting hissacrificial death as atonement for sin but also meant followingChrist by taking up his cross—a life of sacrifice. Paulbelieved that he experienced the cross of Christ every time heendured hardship, every time he was persecuted, every time hesuffered loss (Phil. 3:7–11). And it was in the crucified lifethat Paul found resurrection power (3:12–21). The gospel wasthe divine paradigm for living. What happened to Christ is whathappened to Paul, and what happened to Paul is what would happen toall his converts. “Follow my example,” he wrote, “asI follow the example of Christ” (1Cor. 11:1). In fact,Paul believed that all Christians were constantly being conformed tothe image of God’s Son (Rom. 8:29). He was convinced that Godwould finish what he had started: the perfecting of his convertsuntil the day of Christ’s return and the resurrection of everybeliever (Phil. 1:6; 3:21). The only thing that his converts neededto imitate Christ was the indwelling power of his Spirit (the HolySpirit), the example of Paul’s life, and a letter every now andthen from their apostle.
Paul’sLetters
Paulsent letters to churches and individuals to inform his converts ofhis situation, offer encouragement, answer questions, and addressproblems that developed while he was away. There are thirteen lettersof Paul in the New Testament. Nine were written to churches or groupsof churches (Romans; 1 and 2Corinthians; Galatians; Ephesians;Philippians; Colossions; 1 and 2Thessalonians) and four toindividuals (1 and 2Timothy; Titus; Philemon).
Paulthe apostle.In most of his letters, Paul was on the defense: defending hisapostleship, defending his itinerary, defending his gospel.Evidently, Paul’s opponents questioned whether Paul deserved tobe called “apostle,” since he had not followed thehistorical Jesus and used to persecute the church (1Cor.15:8–9). According to Acts, when the first Christians decidedto replace Judas Iscariot as one of the twelve apostles, theyestablished the following criterion: the candidate must have been afollower of Jesus from his baptism to his ascension (Acts 1:21–22).Two men were qualified; one was chosen by divine lot, implying thatthere could be only twelve. Did the early church’s decision torecognize only twelve apostles define apostleship once and for all?Paul did not think so. He recognized the significance of the Twelve,but he believed that there were other apostles as well: Bar-na-bas,James the brother of Jesus, and himself (1Cor. 15:5–9;Gal. 2:8–9). Paul knew that there were false apostles causingtrouble in the churches (2Cor. 11:13), some even carrying“letters of recommendation” (2Cor. 3:1). But onlythose who had seen the resurrected Christ and were commissioned byhim to preach the gospel were legitimate apostles (1Cor.9:1–2). The signs of apostleship were evident when thecommission was fulfilled: planting churches and dispensing the Spirit(2Cor. 3:2; 12:12; Gal. 3:5). Of all people, Paul’sconverts should have never questioned the authority of their apostle.They were the proof of his apostleship.
AlthoughPaul never mentioned this, the fact that he sent letters is evidenceof his apostleship. Paul believed that the obedience of Gentileconverts was his responsibility, a confirmation of his calling (Rom.15:18–19). So he sent letters to make sure that they werekeeping the traditions that he had taught them (1Cor. 11:2).Sometimes, all that his readers needed was a little encouragement tokeep up the good work (most of 1Thessalonians and 2Timothyare exhortations to keep doing what they were doing) or a moredetailed explanation of what they already knew (Ephesians,Philippians, 1Timothy, Titus). Many times, Paul sent letters tocorrect major problems within his churches. For example, some of theGalatians were submitting to the law and being circumcised (Gal.4:21; 5:2–7). Some of the Colossians were involved in strangepractices of asceticism and angel worship (Col. 2:16–23). Someof the Thessalonians had quit working for a living (2Thess.3:6–15). And, worst of all, the Corinthians were plagued withall kinds of problems: factions, lawsuits, incest, prostitutes,idolatry. Some of the Corinthians were also espousing falsetheological ideas, such as denying the resurrection (1Cor.15:12). Other churches had problems sorting out Paul’s theologyas well. For example, the Thessalonians were confused about lifeafter death, end times, and the return of Christ (1Thess.4:13–18; 2Thess. 2:1–12), and the Romans needed,among other things, instruction about the role of Israel in the lastdays (Rom. 9:1–11:32). The fact that Paul felt obliged to sendhis lengthiest letter, loaded with some of his most sophisticatedtheological arguments, to the church in Rome, which he did not startand had not visited, says much about the way Paul saw the authorityof his apostleship. Because he was the apostle to the Gentiles, Pauloperated as if he were the mentor of all churches with Gentilemembers.
Churchunity.Paul believed in the unity of the church. Indeed, he used severalmetaphors to help his readers see why it was important that one Lordand one faith should form one church. He described the church as atemple (1Cor. 3:16–17), a family (Eph. 2:19), and abody—his favorite metaphor (1Cor. 12:12–27). Hewarned of desecrating the temple with divisive teaching and immoralbehavior (1Cor. 3:1–6:20). He rebuked his children whenthey refused to obey him as their father (1Cor. 3:14–21)or mother (Gal. 4:19–20). And, more than any other analogy,Paul likened the church to a human body that could be maimed byprejudice and threatened by sickness (1Cor. 11:17–34). Tohim, a dismembered body was an unholy body; a segregated church meantthat Christ was divided (1Cor. 1:10–13). The ethnic,religious, social, political, geographical, and economic differencesevident in one of the most diverse collections of people in thefirst-century Mediterranean world made Paul’s vision of aunified church appear like an impossible dream. Yet the apostle tothe Gentiles believed that the unity of the body of Christ wasindispensable not only to his mission but also to the gospel of JesusChrist (Eph. 4:1–6). So he collected a relief offering amonghis Gentile converts to help poor Jewish Christians in Jerusalem(Rom. 15:26–27). He taught masters to treat their slaves likesiblings (Philem. 16). And he solicited Romans to fund his missiontrip to Spain (Rom. 15:24). As far as Paul was concerned, the gospelbrought down every wall that divides humanity because all people needsalvation in Christ (Eph. 2:14–18).
Conclusion
Paulwas a tentmaker, a missionary, a writer, a preacher, a teacher, atheologian, an evangelist, a mentor, a prophet, a miracle worker, aprisoner, and a martyr. His life story reads like the tale of threedifferent men: a devout Pharisee, a tireless traveler, an ambitiouswriter. He knew the Scriptures better than did most people. He sawmore of the world than did most merchants. He wrote some of thelongest letters known at that time. To his converts, he was afaithful friend. To his opponents, he was an irrepressibletroublemaker. But, according to Paul, he was nothing more or lessthan the man whom God had called through Jesus Christ to take thegospel to the ends of the earth.
A Pharisee commissioned by Jesus Christ to preach the gospelto Gentiles. His Jewish name was “Saul” (Acts 9:4; 13:9),but he preferred using his Roman name, especially when he signed hisletters. Actually, “Paul” was his last name. Romancitizens had three names; the last name was the family name, calledthe “cognomen.” We do not know Paul’s first andmiddle Roman name, but his last name is derived from the Latin Paulus(Sergius Paulus, the proconsul of Cyprus, had the same family name[13:7]). Most people were known and called by their last name becausegroup identity was more important in the first-century Mediterraneanworld than individual recognition. For example, when speakingpublicly, Paul did not use his favorite self-designations, “apostleto the Gentiles” or “slave of Christ Jesus”;instead, he identified himself as a Jew, a citizen of Tarsus, astudent of Gamaliel (21:39; 22:3). His social identity was embeddedin his ethnicity, his nativity, his religion. However, even thosecategories cannot adequately describe Paul. He was a Jew but also aRoman citizen. Tarsus was his home (11:25–26), but he claimedthat he was brought up in Jerusalem. He spoke Aramaic but wrote Greekletters. He was once a Pharisee but then preached a circumcision-freegospel to Gentiles. In many respects, Paul is an enigma. Who was he?What did he believe? Why did he think he had to leave his previouslife in Judaism to become the apostle to the Gentiles? Why is he oneof the major contributors to the NT even though he was not a followerof the historical Jesus?
Paul’sLife
Paulas a converted Pharisee.Paul spent the first half of his life as a Pharisee. The Phariseeswere a Jewish sect that emphasized obedience to the law of God as themeans of maintaining holiness. Practically all Jews believed thatthey should obey the law, but what made the Pharisees unique wastheir emphasis on applying all commandments, even those intended onlyfor Levites and priests, to all Jews. For example, priests wererequired to keep certain rituals of hand washing before they ate(Lev. 22:1–9; cf. Exod 30:19–21; 40:31–32). So thePharisees extended these requirements to all Israel in order to showGod how serious they were about obeying the law (Mark 7:3–4).Obedience was crucial to God’s blessing; disobedience broughtGod’s curse. Therefore, the Pharisees established manytraditions, going beyond the letter of the law, to ensure compliance.To what extent the Jewish people followed the example of thePharisees is debated, but certainly it appeared to the people that noone was more zealous for God and his law than the Pharisees—azeal that would compel them to join in the stoning of obviousoffenders (Lev. 24:14; Acts 7:58). As a Pharisee, Paul’s zealfor the law led him to persecute Jewish Christians, not only inJerusalem but also outside Israel, in places such as Damascus (Acts8:3; 9:1–3; 22:4–5; Gal. 1:13–14; Phil. 3:6).Neither Paul nor Luke explains what the Pharisees found objectionableabout this Jewish movement known as “the Way.” In fact,Paul’s teacher, Gamaliel, advised the Sanhedrin to ignoremembers of the Way and not make trouble for them (Acts5:34–39)—advice obviously not taken by Paul. Perhaps itwas Jesus’ reputation as a lawbreaker or the fact that he haddied a cursed death according to the law that convinced Paul toimprison Jesus’ disciples (Deut. 21:23). Whatever the reason,Paul saw his role as persecutor of the church as the ultimate proofof his blamelessness under the law (Phil. 3:6).
AfterChrist appeared to Paul on the road to Damascus, everything changed:his life, his mission, his worldview (Acts 9:3–30). Paul leftPharisaism and immediately began preaching the gospel (Gal. 1:11–17).Those whom he persecuted were now friends. His zeal for the law wasreplaced by his zeal for Christ. It was a radical reversal. The rumorspread quickly: “The man who formerly persecuted us is nowpreaching the faith he once tried to destroy” (Gal. 1:23). Whythe sudden change? Some think that it is what Paul saw—theglorified Messiah—that changed his perspective. Theresurrection of Christ turned the curse of the cross into a blessing,death into life, shame into honor. The appearance of Christ(Christophany) was a revelation, an apocalypse, an end-of-the-worldevent for Paul. Old things passed away; everything became new (2Cor.5:17). What was divided under the old age of the law—Jews andGentiles, male and female, slave and free—was united in Christ.Other scholars emphasize it is what Paul heard during theChristophany that changed the course of his life. Paul interpretedChrist’s charge, “Go, preach to the Gentiles,” as aprophetic calling, perhaps even fulfilling Isaiah’s end-timevision of salvation of the whole world (Isa. 49:1–7; Gal.1:15–16). Thus, Paul’s westward push to take the gospelto the coastlands (Spain) was by divine design (Rom. 15:15–24).God commissioned Saul the Pharisee of the Jews to become Paul theapostle to the Gentiles because “the culmination of the ageshas come” (1Cor. 10:11).
Paul’sministry.By our best estimates, Paul spent about thirty years preaching thegospel of Jesus Christ (AD 34–67)—a ministry that can bedivided roughly into three decades. The first decade of his ministry(AD 34–46) has been called the “silent years,” aswe have few details from Acts or the Pauline Epistles about hisactivities. For example, we know that he preached in Damascus for awhile and spent some time in Arabia (a total of three years [Gal.1:17–18]). He made a quick trip to Jerusalem to meet Peter andJames the brother of Jesus. Then he returned home to Tarsus,evidently preaching there for several years, until Barnabas broughthim to Antioch in Syria to help with the ministry of this mixedcongregation of Jews and Gentiles (Acts 9:26–30; 11:25–26).In the second decade of his ministry (AD 46–59), Paul spentmost of his life on the road, an itinerant ministry of preaching thegospel and planting churches from Cyprus to Corinth. For most of thethird decade (AD 59–67), Paul ministered the gospel fromprison, spending over two years imprisoned in Caesarea, another twoto three years in a Roman prison (Acts ends here), released for abrief time (two years?) before his final arrest and imprisonment inRome, where, according to church tradition, he was executed.
Duringhis itinerant ministry, Paul traveled Roman roads that led him tofree cities (Ephesus, Thessalonica, Athens) and Roman colonies(Pisidian Antioch, Iconium, Lystra, Derbe, Troas, Philippi, Corinth).Founding churches in urban centers afforded Paul more opportunitiesfor ministry and for his work of making and repairing tents.Traveling within the borders of the Roman Empire also provided abetter chance of protection as a citizen. At first, Paul and Barnabascovered familiar territory: Cyprus (Barnabas’s home region) andAnatolia (Paul’s home region). Then, with successive journeysPaul and other missionary companions branched out to Asia Minor,Macedonia, and Achaia. Some of the towns that Paul visited were smalland provincial (Derbe, Lystra); others were major cities of greateconomic and intellectual commerce (Ephesus, Corinth, Athens). In themidst of such cultural diversity, Paul found receptive ears among avariety of ethnic groups: Gauls, Phrygians and Lycaonians, Greeks,Romans, and Jews. Previously, Paul’s Gentile converts hadworshiped many gods (local, ethnic, and imperial), offered sacrificesat many shrines and temples, and joined in all the religiousfestivals (often involving immoral and ungodly practices). Afterbelieving the gospel, Paul’s predominantly Gentile churchesturned from their idolatrous ways to serve “the living and trueGod” (1Thess. 1:9). Their exclusive devotion to one Godquickly led to economic and political problems, for both Paul’sconverts and the cities of their residence. No more offerings forpatron gods, no more support for local synagogues or the imperialcult—Paul’s converts were often persecuted for theirnewly found faith by local religious guilds (idol makers!) and civicleaders courting Roman favor (Acts 17:6–9; 19:23–41;Phil. 1:27–30; 1Thess. 2:14–16). Indeed, Paul oftenwas run out of town as a troublemaker who preached a message thatthreatened both the Jewish and the Roman ways of life (Acts 16:19–24;Phil. 3:17–4:1). It is no wonder that Paul’s activitieseventually landed him in a Roman prison. It was only a matter of timebefore his reputation as a “lawbreaker” caught up withhim (Acts 21:21). But that did not stop Paul. Whether as a prisoneror a free man, Paul proclaimed the gospel of Jesus Christ until theday he died.
Paul’sGospel
Thesources of Paul’s gospel.Paul ministered his entire life without the benefit of literaryGospels. Most scholars think that the earliest Gospel, Mark, waswritten about the time that Paul was martyred. Since Paul was not adisciple of Jesus and probably never heard him speak or witnessed hisearthly ministry, how did Paul know what to preach? Where did Paulget his gospel? Paul mentioned four sources. First, he received oraltraditions about Jesus from other Christians (1Cor. 15:1–7).For him, hearing what happened during the Lord’s Supper fromthose who followed Jesus was the same as receiving it from the Lord(1Cor. 11:23). Second, the Hebrew Scriptures were a majorsource of Paul’s gospel (Acts 17:2). Illumined by the HolySpirit, Paul saw the gospel proclaimed in the law (Rom. 10:6–8)and predicted by the prophets (15:12). Third, in addition to theChristophany on the road to Damascus, Paul experienced revelations ofChrist as epiphanies of the gospel (Acts 18:9–10; 26:18). Thisgave Paul the authority to claim that he received his gospelpreeminently from Christ (Gal. 1:1, 16; 2:2). Fourth, Paul saw lifeexperiences as a resource for the gospel (2Cor. 12:7–10).As Paul made sense of what happened to him, he shared these insightswith his converts as proof that “Christ is speaking through me”(2Cor. 13:3–4). Indeed, Paul’s ways of doing thegospel were to be taught in all the churches as gospel truth (1Cor.4:17), because as far as Paul was concerned, the gospel of JesusChrist was the gospel according to Paul.
Thedeath and resurrection of Jesus Christ.The center of Paul’s gospel was the death and resurrection ofJesus. The essence of what he preached was “Jesus Christ andhim crucified” (1Cor. 2:2). Furthermore, the resurrectionof Christ was indispensable to the gospel that Paul proclaimed.Without the resurrection, Paul argued, faith in Christ would be vainbecause believers would still be dead in their sins with no hope oflife after death—the resurrection of their bodies (1Cor.15:13–19). Exploring the center, Paul used several metaphorsdrawn from everyday life to explain the significance of Christ’swork on the cross. Paul used legal terms such as“justification”/“righteousness,” “law,”and “condemnation” when he explained how sinners arejustified by faith in Christ. Paul described the implications ofChrist’s death in religious terms, using words such as“sacrifice,” “sin,”“propitiation”/“expiation” (NIV: “sacrificeof atonement”), and “temple,” which would makesense to both Jews and Gentiles. He also borrowed words from theworld of commerce, such as “redemption,” “purchase,”and “slave,” especially when he emphasized the obedienceof Christ, of Paul, of all believers. He even used military terms todescribe how God turned enemies into friends through the cross: the“reconciliation” that came through the “victory”of Christ’s death when he “disarmed” the “powers.”
Paulalso relied heavily on Jewish theology as he sorted out the work ofGod in Christ Jesus. Paul was a monotheist but attributed divinestatus to Jesus (Phil. 2:6). Paul believed that Israel was God’schosen people but maintained that his Gentile converts were theelect, calling them the “Israel of God” (Gal. 6:16). Paulaffirmed the law was holy but argued that holiness came only throughthe indwelling Spirit (Rom. 7:12; 1Thess. 4:7–8). Paulbelieved that the Messiah’s appearance would bring about theend of the world but looked forward to Christ’s parousia(“appearance”) at the end of time. In other words, theperson and work of Christ formed the lens through which Paulinterpreted the Bible and made sense of the world. Indeed, Paul’sgospel was built on a foundation of Jewish doctrine, Jesus tradition,and religious experience.
Away of life.For Paul, the gospel was more than a set of beliefs; it was a way oflife. To believe in Christ Jesus not only entailed accepting hissacrificial death as atonement for sin but also meant followingChrist by taking up his cross—a life of sacrifice. Paulbelieved that he experienced the cross of Christ every time heendured hardship, every time he was persecuted, every time hesuffered loss (Phil. 3:7–11). And it was in the crucified lifethat Paul found resurrection power (3:12–21). The gospel wasthe divine paradigm for living. What happened to Christ is whathappened to Paul, and what happened to Paul is what would happen toall his converts. “Follow my example,” he wrote, “asI follow the example of Christ” (1Cor. 11:1). In fact,Paul believed that all Christians were constantly being conformed tothe image of God’s Son (Rom. 8:29). He was convinced that Godwould finish what he had started: the perfecting of his convertsuntil the day of Christ’s return and the resurrection of everybeliever (Phil. 1:6; 3:21). The only thing that his converts neededto imitate Christ was the indwelling power of his Spirit (the HolySpirit), the example of Paul’s life, and a letter every now andthen from their apostle.
Paul’sLetters
Paulsent letters to churches and individuals to inform his converts ofhis situation, offer encouragement, answer questions, and addressproblems that developed while he was away. There are thirteen lettersof Paul in the New Testament. Nine were written to churches or groupsof churches (Romans; 1 and 2Corinthians; Galatians; Ephesians;Philippians; Colossions; 1 and 2Thessalonians) and four toindividuals (1 and 2Timothy; Titus; Philemon).
Paulthe apostle.In most of his letters, Paul was on the defense: defending hisapostleship, defending his itinerary, defending his gospel.Evidently, Paul’s opponents questioned whether Paul deserved tobe called “apostle,” since he had not followed thehistorical Jesus and used to persecute the church (1Cor.15:8–9). According to Acts, when the first Christians decidedto replace Judas Iscariot as one of the twelve apostles, theyestablished the following criterion: the candidate must have been afollower of Jesus from his baptism to his ascension (Acts 1:21–22).Two men were qualified; one was chosen by divine lot, implying thatthere could be only twelve. Did the early church’s decision torecognize only twelve apostles define apostleship once and for all?Paul did not think so. He recognized the significance of the Twelve,but he believed that there were other apostles as well: Bar-na-bas,James the brother of Jesus, and himself (1Cor. 15:5–9;Gal. 2:8–9). Paul knew that there were false apostles causingtrouble in the churches (2Cor. 11:13), some even carrying“letters of recommendation” (2Cor. 3:1). But onlythose who had seen the resurrected Christ and were commissioned byhim to preach the gospel were legitimate apostles (1Cor.9:1–2). The signs of apostleship were evident when thecommission was fulfilled: planting churches and dispensing the Spirit(2Cor. 3:2; 12:12; Gal. 3:5). Of all people, Paul’sconverts should have never questioned the authority of their apostle.They were the proof of his apostleship.
AlthoughPaul never mentioned this, the fact that he sent letters is evidenceof his apostleship. Paul believed that the obedience of Gentileconverts was his responsibility, a confirmation of his calling (Rom.15:18–19). So he sent letters to make sure that they werekeeping the traditions that he had taught them (1Cor. 11:2).Sometimes, all that his readers needed was a little encouragement tokeep up the good work (most of 1Thessalonians and 2Timothyare exhortations to keep doing what they were doing) or a moredetailed explanation of what they already knew (Ephesians,Philippians, 1Timothy, Titus). Many times, Paul sent letters tocorrect major problems within his churches. For example, some of theGalatians were submitting to the law and being circumcised (Gal.4:21; 5:2–7). Some of the Colossians were involved in strangepractices of asceticism and angel worship (Col. 2:16–23). Someof the Thessalonians had quit working for a living (2Thess.3:6–15). And, worst of all, the Corinthians were plagued withall kinds of problems: factions, lawsuits, incest, prostitutes,idolatry. Some of the Corinthians were also espousing falsetheological ideas, such as denying the resurrection (1Cor.15:12). Other churches had problems sorting out Paul’s theologyas well. For example, the Thessalonians were confused about lifeafter death, end times, and the return of Christ (1Thess.4:13–18; 2Thess. 2:1–12), and the Romans needed,among other things, instruction about the role of Israel in the lastdays (Rom. 9:1–11:32). The fact that Paul felt obliged to sendhis lengthiest letter, loaded with some of his most sophisticatedtheological arguments, to the church in Rome, which he did not startand had not visited, says much about the way Paul saw the authorityof his apostleship. Because he was the apostle to the Gentiles, Pauloperated as if he were the mentor of all churches with Gentilemembers.
Churchunity.Paul believed in the unity of the church. Indeed, he used severalmetaphors to help his readers see why it was important that one Lordand one faith should form one church. He described the church as atemple (1Cor. 3:16–17), a family (Eph. 2:19), and abody—his favorite metaphor (1Cor. 12:12–27). Hewarned of desecrating the temple with divisive teaching and immoralbehavior (1Cor. 3:1–6:20). He rebuked his children whenthey refused to obey him as their father (1Cor. 3:14–21)or mother (Gal. 4:19–20). And, more than any other analogy,Paul likened the church to a human body that could be maimed byprejudice and threatened by sickness (1Cor. 11:17–34). Tohim, a dismembered body was an unholy body; a segregated church meantthat Christ was divided (1Cor. 1:10–13). The ethnic,religious, social, political, geographical, and economic differencesevident in one of the most diverse collections of people in thefirst-century Mediterranean world made Paul’s vision of aunified church appear like an impossible dream. Yet the apostle tothe Gentiles believed that the unity of the body of Christ wasindispensable not only to his mission but also to the gospel of JesusChrist (Eph. 4:1–6). So he collected a relief offering amonghis Gentile converts to help poor Jewish Christians in Jerusalem(Rom. 15:26–27). He taught masters to treat their slaves likesiblings (Philem. 16). And he solicited Romans to fund his missiontrip to Spain (Rom. 15:24). As far as Paul was concerned, the gospelbrought down every wall that divides humanity because all people needsalvation in Christ (Eph. 2:14–18).
Conclusion
Paulwas a tentmaker, a missionary, a writer, a preacher, a teacher, atheologian, an evangelist, a mentor, a prophet, a miracle worker, aprisoner, and a martyr. His life story reads like the tale of threedifferent men: a devout Pharisee, a tireless traveler, an ambitiouswriter. He knew the Scriptures better than did most people. He sawmore of the world than did most merchants. He wrote some of thelongest letters known at that time. To his converts, he was afaithful friend. To his opponents, he was an irrepressibletroublemaker. But, according to Paul, he was nothing more or lessthan the man whom God had called through Jesus Christ to take thegospel to the ends of the earth.
The Bible contains little information about nonathleticgames, but archaeology has revealed numerous types of board games andchildren’s games in Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Canaan. Althoughactual game pieces and dice have been found, information concerningthe rules of the games is lacking. The Hebrew Bible does not describeanything like Greek or Roman games, but the NT makes numerousreferences to athletic competitions.
Greekgames originated with funeral rites that commemorated heroes. TheIliad provides the earliest reference to Greek games as it describesgames sponsored by Achilles in memory of Patroklos. The games becamean integral part of Greek culture, honored the Greek gods, and werean essential element in a Greek education. Games were held athundreds of local festivals across the Mediterranean, but the fourPanhellenic games were the most prestigious. The games wereaccompanied by a sacred truce and held in sanctuaries. The Greekstrained and competed in the nude. Initially, running was the onlycompetition, but by the second century AD Pausanius enumeratedtwenty-four contests, all of which were individual competitions. Thespecific contests varied from place to place, but the main eventsincluded running, chariot racing, long jumping, javelin throwing,discus throwing (2Macc. 4:14), wrestling, boxing (1Cor.9:26), and the pankration, which was a form of all-out fighting. Someof the games included musical competitions. The prize, a wreath, wasawarded only for first prize, and the winner of all four Panhellenicgames was the periodonikēs. The victor returned home to a hero’swelcome, fame, and gifts. Some examples of cheating and bribery havesurvived, and those caught were fined.
TheOlympic games, established in 776 BC, were the oldest and mostprestigious of the Panhellenic games. They were held every four yearsin the sanctuary complex of Zeus in Olympia. The stadium wastypically about 600 feet long, but Olympia’s was the longest,at about 630 feet, because of the tradition that Heracles had laidout the course. The remaining Panhellenic games were establishedabout two hundred years later, in the sixth century BC. The Pythiangames were held at the sanctuary of Apollo in Delphi. The Nemeangames were held at the sanctuary of Zeus in Argos. The Isthmian gameswere administered by Corinth at the sanctuary of Poseidon.
TheRomans preferred gladiatorial games and wild-game hunts over Greekgames. Nevertheless, Romans were allowed to participate in thePanhellenic games. In fact, the emperors Tiberius and Neroparticipated. The Roman games were wildly popular with the people. Bythe second century AD, 135 days of games were held each year in Rome.The Circus Maximus was the largest venue, allowing up to two hundredthousand spectators to attend the chariot races. The Colosseum, thelargest amphitheater in the Roman Empire, was built in AD 80,financed with spoils taken during the First Jewish Revolt. It heldfifty thousand spectators for the gladiatorial games. Prisoners ofwar, slaves, and criminals condemned to die were forced to fight asgladiators and face wild beasts. Gladiatorial games were heldthroughout the empire. Herod the Great threw condemned criminals towild animals in his amphitheater near Jerusalem in order to delightthe spectators (Josephus, Ant. 15.273–75). Paul refers tofighting wild beasts in Ephesus (1Cor. 15:32), though this islikely a metaphor for his spiritual opponents. Roman-style gameshonored Rome and became a symbol of loyalty to the Roman Empire.
Jewishviews toward Greek and Roman games varied. Some Jews, especiallythose in the Diaspora, embraced the games as spectators andparticipants (2Macc. 4:9–14). During the reign ofAntiochusIV, some Jewish youth participated in the gymnasium inJerusalem. They even underwent surgery to cover the signs of theircircumcision (1Macc. 1:12–15). Herod the Great builtamphitheaters, stadiums, and hippodromes throughout his kingdom, andPhilo of Alexandria frequented the games. However, the authors of 1–2Maccabees criticize the priests for neglecting their duties byattending the games. Furthermore, the religious association of thegames led many conservative Jews to oppose the games.
BecausePaul and his audiences were familiar with Greek and Roman games, hedrew upon them as analogies to the Christian life. During Paul’seighteen-month ministry in Corinth, the nearby Isthmian games wereplayed. Through references to training and competition, Pauldemonstrates the need to be disciplined, focused, determined as anathlete (1Cor. 9:24–27; 2Tim. 4:7; cf. Heb. 12:1).In contrast to the wreath won by Greek athletes, Christians strivefor an eternal prize and a crown of righteousness (1Cor. 9:27;Phil. 3:14; 2Tim. 4:7–8).
An occupation or profession is the usual work or business inwhich a person engages for the sake of earning a living. In biblicaltimes, family or social standing most often determined occupation.This was particularly true for occupations tied to land, such asplanting crops and raising animals, since land in ancient Israel waspassed down within the tribe, normally from fathers to sons (Josh.14:9; Ezek. 46:18). Sometimes daughters also received a share in thefamily inheritance (Josh. 17:6). Most people gained their livelihoodfrom their family’s land, and those who did not have land hiredthemselves out to work for wages (Deut. 24:14). A son normallylearned his trade from his father (Gen. 47:3; 2Kings 4:18;Matt. 4:21) and continued in that occupation unless called into God’sservice (1Kings 19:19–21; Jer. 1:5; Matt. 4:22).
Cicero,writing around the time of the NT, considered occupations such as taxcollector, laborer, and fisherman to be vulgar. Conversely,professions such as teacher, doctor, and wholesale trader were morehonorable, with landowner being the most respectable and profitableprofession (Off. 1.42).
Agricultureand Farming
Farmingis the earliest recorded occupation in the Bible, as the first manwas called to work and keep the garden (Gen. 2:15). Even after theexile from Eden because of sin, Adam worked the ground for food, asdid Cain, his firstborn son (Gen. 3:17–18; 4:2). The openingchapters of the Bible establish a fundamental link between “man”(’adam) and the “ground” (’adamah). After theflood, Noah established himself as a “man of the soil”(’ish ha’adamah) by planting a vineyard (Gen. 9:20). KingUzziah “loved the soil” (’oheb ’adamah) andso employed people to work in his fields and vineyards (2Chron.26:10).
Goddemonstrated his covenant commitment to Isaac by blessing him with anincredible harvest (Gen. 26:12), and he promised to prosper Israel’sfarms if the people obeyed him (Deut. 28:4) and to curse the fruit oftheir ground if they disobeyed (Deut. 28:18). The OT ideal was foreveryone to live “under their own vine and under their own figtree” (1Kings 4:25; Mic. 4:4). According to Prov. 28:19,the diligent farmer would have abundant food.
Jesus’parables frequently employed agricultural imagery that would havebeen readily understandable in first-century Palestine, where manypeople were farmers (cf. Mark 4:1–9; 12:1–11) and someowned land (Acts 4:34). The people living around Jerusalem at thistime engaged in agriculture, soil cultivation, and cattle raising(Let. Aris. 107–112).
Herdingand Hunting
Herdinganimals is the second-oldest occupation recorded in Scripture (afterfarming), and raising flocks and herds continued to be one of themost common and important professions throughout biblical times. Abelis the first “keeper of sheep” in the Bible (Gen. 4:2NRSV). Several generations later, Jabal pioneered the nomadic herdinglifestyle (Gen. 4:20). The patriarchs were shepherds (Gen. 47:3), aswere Moses (Exod. 3:1), David (1Sam. 17:34), and many others inthe OT. Josephus acknowledged that “feeding of sheep was theemployment of our forefathers in the most ancient ages”(Ag.Ap. 1.91). While men typically worked as shepherds andherdsmen, the occupation was also open to women, such as Rachel,whose fathers owned sheep (Gen. 29:9). Shepherds were present atJesus’ birth (Luke 2:8–20), and Jesus’ teachingsuggests that shepherding was a common occupation in Palestine (cf.Matt. 18:12; John 10:1–30).
Manypeople in biblical times hunted, either for food, sport, orprotection. The first recorded hunter is Nimrod, “a mightyhunter before the Lord” (Gen. 10:9). Ishmael was “anexpert with the bow” (Gen. 21:20 NRSV), while Esau was “askillful hunter, a man of the open country” who brought backwild game for food (25:27–28). The name of Pokereth-Hazzebaim,included in the genealogy of Solomon’s servants in Ezra 2:57,reflects his occupation as a “gazelle catcher” (cf.1Kings 4:23).
Buildersand Craftsmen
Cainwas the first person in the Bible to build a city (Gen. 4:17), andhis descendant Tubal-Cain was the first metalworker (4:22). Nimrodbuilt a number of cities (10:11–12), and the beginning ofNimrod’s kingdom was Babel (10:10), where the people gatheredtogether to build a city with brick (11:3). Builders in Mesopotamiaused baked brick and asphalt, while Israelite builders usuallypreferred the more readily available stone and mortar. After Joseph’sdeath, Israel was conscripted into forced labor in Egypt, whichinvolved building cities of brick and mortar (Exod. 1:11).
Therole of craftsmen in the construction of the tabernacle wasparticularly significant. Bezalel and Oholiab were “skilledworkers and designers” empowered by God for work on thetabernacle (Exod. 35:35). They engaged in “all kinds ofcrafts,” including artistic metalworking, masonry, carpentry,and weaving (Exod. 31:4–5; 38:23).
Kingsin Israel often commissioned important building projects (1Kings12:25; 15:22; 16:24; 2Chron. 26:9; Josephus, J.W. 1.401–2).Carpenters and stonemasons worked on David’s palace (2Sam.5:11). Solomon conscripted laborers to build the temple and alsoemployed carriers, stonecutters, craftsmen, and foremen to supervisethe work (1Kings 5:13–18). After the Babylonian exile,many Israelites were involved in rebuilding the temple and the wallof Jerusalem, which had been destroyed (Ezra 3:8; Neh. 4:16–18).These projects, directed by Zerubbabel and Nehemiah, utilized masons,carpenters, and other workers (Ezra 3:7).
Jesusis referred to as a tektōn (Mark 6:3) and as the son of a tektōn(Matt. 13:55), with tektōn usually translated “carpenter”by English versions. However,recent scholarshiphas demonstrated that Jesus was likely a builder, not a carpenter inthe modern sense of the term. In the LXX, the word tektōntypically translates a Hebrew word, kharash, used broadly to refer tocraftsmen working with stone, wood, or metal.
Musicians
Thefirst musician recorded in Scripture is Jubal, “the father ofall who play the stringed instruments and pipes” (Gen. 4:21).Musicians performed a variety of roles in ancient society, as they dotoday. Singers and instrumentalists were employed to celebratefestive occasions, often to provide accompaniment for dancing (Gen.31:27; Luke 15:25), to soothe the sick or distressed (1Sam.16:16), and to express lamentation (Job 30:31).
Musiciansplayed an important role in leading God’s people in worship.The “director of music” is mentioned in the headings offifty-five psalms and Hab. 3:19. The most famous musician inScripture is David, “the singer of Israel’s psalms”(2Sam. 23:1 GW), who played the harp (1Sam. 16:18) andwrote or inspired at least seventy-three canonical psalms. Solomonwas also a notable songwriter and lover of music (1Kings 4:32).David appointed many Levites as singers and musicians to lead Israelin worship (1Chron. 15:16; 23:5). The musicians played lyres,harps, cymbals, and trumpets (2Chron. 5:12).
Government,Politics, and Military
Beforethe monarchy, there were no formal government offices. Under Moses, agroup of seventy elders in Israel served as leaders and officials,and these men were to carry out Moses’ decrees and judge thepeople on most matters (Exod. 18:20–22; Num. 11:16). AfterJoshua’s death, God raised up judges to rescue Israel fromforeign enemies and lead the people (Judg. 2:16) until the time ofSamuel, when Saul was made king (1Sam. 11:15).
Kingsin Israel employed various officials. In 2Sam. 8:16–18,Joab is listed first among David’s officials, which suggeststhat the military commander was second in authority after the king.Under Solomon, the leader of the army is called “commander inchief” (1Kings 4:4). The royal cabinet included a numberof key advisers, including the recorder, the secretary, and the“confidant” of the king (cf. 2Sam. 16:16). The OTdoes not specify the precise roles of these officials. The recorderwas among the highest governmental positions and served as a royalcounselor. In Hebrew, mazkir (“recorder”) is a cognatenoun to the verb zkr (“to remember”), which suggests thatthis official may have managed and preserved public records (2Kings18:18; Isa. 36:22). The main task of the king’s secretary orscribe (sop̱er)was to write down (sapar) official state documents (2Sam.8:17), and he advised the king and also provided financial oversight(2Kings 12:10). Recorders and secretaries apparently were welleducated and multilingual, as was the palace administrator (2Kings18:18, 26). Solomon’s officials included supervisors of thepalace and the forced labor, as well as governors who suppliedprovisions for the king’s household (1Kings 4:6–7).The OT mentions cupbearers in Israel’s government and in otheradministrations (Gen. 40:1; 1Kings 10:5; Neh. 1:11). Thecupbearer served as the royal wine taster; he protected the king frombeing poisoned and had direct access to the monarch.
Inthe Roman Empire, the emperor was absolute ruler (1Pet. 2:17),with the senate next in authority. Proconsuls held judicial andmilitary authority over larger provinces (Acts 18:12), prefects(governors) administered smaller provinces (Matt. 27:2), withtetrarchs over one-fourth of a province (Luke 3:1).
Christiansin NT times engaged in civil service. Erastus was a financial officerin Corinth (Rom. 16:23), and he may be the same Erastus commemoratedin an inscription from this period who held the office of aedile. Theproconsul Sergius Paulus (Acts 13:7); Manaen, a close friend of HerodAntipas (Acts 13:1); and members of Caesar’s household (Phil.4:22) were also Christian public leaders.
Tradeand Economics
Fromearliest times, people have exchanged goods and property. WhenAbraham purchased Ephron’s field, his silver was measured“according to the weight current among the merchants”(Gen. 23:16), which suggests that a recognized system of publictrading was in place during the time of the patriarchs. Traders ofcommodities such as spices traveled along caravan routes betweensouthern Arabia and Egypt, and these traders often acquired slavesalong the way (Gen. 37:28). Solomon employed royal merchants to buyand sell goods (1Kings 10:28).
Inthe first century, Jews were engaged broadly in economic life aslandowners, artisans, merchants, traders, bankers, and slaves.Several of Jesus’ disciples were fishermen (Matt. 4:18). Lukewas a physician, a well-educated and respectable professional (Col.4:14). Lydia was a dealer in purple cloth (Acts 16:14). Paul, Aquila,and Priscilla worked as tentmakers (Acts 18:3). In the Roman Empire,commerce and pagan religion often intermingled. Merchants oftenformed trade guilds, where membership sometimes required religiousand moral compromise. In Ephesus, silversmiths and craftsmen inrelated trades turned significant profit through their connectionswith the local Artemis cult (Acts 19:24–27).
Jesusfrequently spent time with tax collectors, such as Levi (also called“Matthew”) (Matt. 9:9; Mark 2:14). Tax collectors were adespised group because often they became wealthy by taking advantageof the Roman taxation system, which allowed them to charge commissionon taxes collected (Luke 19:2, 8). Jesus’ parable of thetalents references bankers who offered interest on deposits collected(Matt. 25:27), and Rev. 3:17–18 alludes to the fact thatLaodicea was a financial center with a significant banking system.
Servantsand Slaves
Inthe OT, ’ebed most often designates a slave or servant, whoseoccupation involves work (’abad ) as a subordinate. Someservants held very important positions in their master’shousehold (Gen. 24:2), while many others toiled in hard labor (Job7:2). Israelites were not to enslave their kinfolk, but they couldtake slaves from other nations. Fellow Israelites who became poorcould serve as hired workers, but they were to be released along withtheir children at the Jubilee because God had brought Israel out fromEgyptian slavery and they belonged to God as his servants (Lev.25:39–46).
Slavesin the Roman world were property like goods or cattle, possessed byanother (Dio Chrysostom, 2Serv. lib. 24). Unlike modern slaverypractices, race played no factor in the Roman institution of slavery.Slaves were kidnapped and sold in NT times (1Tim. 1:10; Rev.18:13), but the majority of slaves were so by birth. The mostprominent slave in the NT is Onesimus, for whom Paul intercedes withhis master, Philemon (Philem. 10, 16). Believing slaves were to obeytheir earthly masters “as slaves of Christ” (Eph. 6:5–6),but the NT stressed the equality of slave and free in Christ (Gal.3:28). Paul called himself a “servant [doulos] of Christ Jesus”(Rom. 1:1).
ReligiousService
MostIsraelites engaged in professional religious service were Levites(Num. 3:12), including Moses, Aaron, and the priests in Aaron’sline (Exod. 6:19–20; 35:19). The priests offered sacrifices toGod on behalf of the people (Heb. 5:1). Under the priests’direction, the Levites were charged with caring for the tabernacleand its furnishings (Num. 1:49; 1Chron. 23:32) and carrying theark of the covenant (1Chron. 15:2). They were set apart toserve in God’s presence (Deut. 18:7) and to lead the people inworship (2Chron. 5:12). Further, priests often played animportant advisory role to Israel’s kings (2Sam. 8:17;1Kings 4:5; 2Kings 12:2).
InIsrael, people went to seers and prophets to inquire of God (1Sam.9:9), for they received and communicated God’s word (2Sam.24:11; Jer. 37:6). Sometimes individuals are mentioned as prophets,and other times the prophets are discussed as an organized group(1Sam. 19:20; 1Kings 22:6).
TheNT references a number of ministerial offices (1Cor. 12:28;Eph. 4:11; 1Tim. 3:1–12). Not all ministers were paid,though teachers and preachers had a right to “receive theirliving from the gospel” (1Cor. 9:14–15; cf. 1Tim.5:17). Apostles were those sent out by Jesus as his representatives.The term apostolos refers particularly to the twelve apostles whowere with Jesus during his earthly ministry and who were witnesses ofhis resurrection (Acts 1:21–22). Paul referred to himself as anapostle (Gal. 1:1; 1Cor. 1:1), and he calls Epaph-ro-di-tus andothers “messengers” (apostoloi) in the churches (2Cor.8:23; Phil. 2:25). Prophets have the spiritual gift of prophecy andspeak to strengthen, encourage, and comfort the church (Acts 15:32;1Cor. 14:3). Overseers (also called “elders” or“pastors”) are qualified leaders who teach, shepherd, andexercise authority in the church (1Tim. 3:1; 1Pet. 5:2).Evangelists and missionaries proclaim the gospel and aim to winconverts to Christ (Acts 21:8; 2Tim. 4:5). Those ministers whoare faithful to the gospel deserve support (3John8).
Both the OT and the NT view wealth as ultimately a result ofGod’s blessing (Prov. 10:22). Abraham shows the right attitudeby refusing to accept plunder from the king of Sodom, recognizing Godas the sole source of his riches (Gen. 14:23). Solomon’s wealthwas seen as God’s favor (1Kings 3:13). Wealth and richesare said to be in the house of persons “who fear the Lord”(Ps. 112:1–3). However, material success alone is notnecessarily an indication of God’s approval, nor is poverty asign of God’s disfavor. Fundamentally, neither poverty norwealth can be superficially tied to divine displeasure or favor.
Balancedview.The Bible articulates a balanced view of wealth. It warns againsthaving an arrogant attitude by failing to acknowledge that the sourceof wealth is God (Deut. 8:17–18). There is danger in trustingin riches (Pss. 52:7; 62:10). The rich are charged not to be haughty,and to set their hopes not on uncertain riches but rather on God(1Tim. 6:17–18). The love of money is described as theroot of all kinds of evil (1Tim. 6:9–10), and it istherefore extremely difficult for a rich person to enter the kingdomof God (Matt. 19:24). The foolishness of materialism, making richesthe center of one’s life, is shown in the parable of thewealthy farmer (Luke 12:15–21). Instead of monetary greed, thespirit of contentment is commended, because even if lacking on thematerial level, one still has the Lord (Luke 12:15; Phil. 4:11; Heb.13:5). Material possessions should be gained rightly; effort anddiligence are required (Gen. 3:19; Prov. 10:4). Obtaining wealththrough dishonesty and ill-gotten gains is denounced and condemned(Prov. 11:26; 13:11; Jer. 17:11; Mic. 6:12).
God-centeredperspective.Wealth and material possessions are to be viewed from a God-centeredperspective. God is the one who provides everything; thus we shouldtrust him for our daily needs (Matt. 6:25–34; Luke 11:3). Job’sconfession in a time of loss, “The Lord gave and the Lord hastaken away; may the name of the Lord be praised,” shows anadmirable attitude to emulate (Job 1:21). God is the owner of allthings, and we are simply stewards and administrators of God’swealth. We need to remember that one day we will be accountable forthe use of our wealth (1Cor. 10:31). Jesus teaches us to seekthe kingdom of God first rather than his material blessings (Luke12:31–33). Anything that draws us away from serving God shouldbe avoided. We cannot serve both God and mammon (Matt. 6:24). Ourtreasures are to be in heaven, meaning that our central focus shouldbe on matters pertaining to the kingdom: “Where your treasureis, there your heart will be also” (Luke 12:32–34).
Responsibilityand generosity.With the possession of wealth comes the duty to give generously tothose in need (Prov. 11:24; 28:27). Prosperity is given as a means todo good; thus we ought to be rich in good deeds (1Tim. 6:18).Although it is a duty of the covenant community to take care of theneedy in the OT, it still emphasizes the voluntary heart (Deut.15:5–11). In 2Cor. 9:7, Paul presents the principle ofgiving in the NT: “Each of you should give what you havedecided in your heart to give, not reluctantly or under compulsion,for God loves a cheerful giver.” It should be not an exactionbut a willing gift (9:5).
TheChristian should emulate Jesus: “Though he was rich, yet for[our] sake he became poor, so that [we] through his poverty mightbecome rich” (2Cor. 8:9). Therefore, material offeringsto Christ should not be a burden (1Cor. 9:11). Sacrificialgiving is an expression of love to the Lord (2Cor. 9:12). Italso generates thanksgiving to God from those who receive it (2Cor.9:11). Worldly wealth should also be used for evangelistic purposes(Luke 16:8). If we are faithful in the use of money, we can betrusted with the kingdom’s spiritual riches (Luke 16:12–13).Although riches do not have eternal value in themselves, their properuse has eternal consequences (Luke 12:33; 1Tim. 6:19). One ofthe qualifications of a church overseer is to be free from the loveof money, and a deacon must not pursue dishonest gain (1Tim.3:3, 8). A good name is to be chosen over great riches (Prov. 22:1).James condemns as sinful the attitude of favoring the wealthy overthe poor. Nonpreferential love is the answer to prejudicialfavoritism (James 2:1–9).
The historical origins of Christianity need to be set against Jewish history, beliefs, and culture in Palestine and the eastern Mediterranean, but they also need to be set in the context of the wider Greco-Roman world that was dominated politically and militarily by the Roman Empire.
From Republic to Empire
Rome began as a city-state but soon became a transcontinental empire reaching over parts of Europe, Africa, and Asia. Rome emerged as the most dominant force in the Mediterranean after it defeated Carthage in the Second Punic War (218–201 BC). Thereafter, Rome began to expand its control and power over the various Hellenistic city-states in the east, including Macedonia, Illyria, and Asia Minor. By the mid-first century AD, Rome had also conquered or annexed Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Cyrene, Gaul, Spain, North Africa, and Armenia.
The transition from the Roman Republic to the Roman Empire took place under the Roman emperors beginning with Julius Caesar (100–44 BC), who, after crossing the Rubicon and defeating Pompey, was proclaimed dictator perpetuus (“dictator for life”). The period after Julius Caesar’s assassination (44 BC) was a time of political upheaval as Rome was marred by a series of civil wars. The first was between Octavius and Antony against Caesar’s assassins Brutus and Cassius. This climaxed in the Battle of Philippi (42 BC), which the former allies of Julius Caesar won. The second was between Octavius and Antony, where Antony and Cleopatra were defeated at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, leaving Octavius as the undisputed leader of Rome.
Octavius was given the honorific name “Augustus” by the senate. His reign (31 BC–AD 14) marked a period of consolidation, reorganization, and renewal of the Roman Empire. Augustus embarked on an empire-wide policy of fiscal rationalization, developed a constitutional settlement for Rome, centralized his military authority over the various provinces, and had Julius Caesar deified. Writers and artists of the era heralded Augustus’s reign as a time of unprecedented peace and security—peace from civil war and security from the Germanic tribes in the north and the Parthian Empire in the east. Worship of the emperor became more frequent especially in the Roman East, although Augustus did not permit it in Rome. What is most significant about Augustus is that it is with his reign that the Roman Empire essentially began. He was the emperor at the time of Jesus’ birth (Luke 2:1). It was under Trajan (AD 98–117), however, that the Roman Empire expanded to its largest area, encompassing parts of Britain and Persia.
Emperors (AD 14–98)
Tiberius, Augustus’s adopted heir, reigned in the years AD 14–37. He was a highly successful military general, but as emperor he was remembered as being gloomy and melancholic. Tiberius even went into a self-imposed exile for a time, leaving the praetorian prefect Sejanus in charge until Tiberius finally had him executed for treason. It was during the reign of Tiberius that Jesus conducted his ministry in Palestine.
Tiberius was succeeded by his adopted grandson Caligula, who reigned in the years AD 37–41. Caligula was the son of the popular Roman general Germanicus, who died in Antioch in AD 19. Historical sources are not favorably disposed toward Caligula, who was remembered as a malevolent tyrant given to self-aggrandizement and sexual perversity. In AD 39/40 Caligula departed from imperial policy that permitted emperor worship in the east and veneration of deceased emperors in Rome, and he often appeared dressed as a god in public and demanded worship as a living god. During this time he deposed Herod Antipas, the tetrarch of Galilee and Perea, on suspicion of consorting with Parthia (Josephus, Ant. 18.7). Caligula also ordered that his statue be placed in the holy of holies in the Jerusalem temple (Philo, Embassy 203). Petronius, the governor of Syria, knowing that such an act would lead to civil war, refused to comply and appealed to Caligula to reverse the order. In response, Caligula sent an order to Petronius that he commit suicide. Fortunately, news of Caligula’s assassination by a conspiracy involving the praetorian guard and senators reached Petronius first.
Claudius, Caligula’s uncle, reigned in the years AD 41–54, and his rule was defined by numerous public works, a reordering of the judicial system, a torrid series of marriages, the conquest of Britain, and a number of attempted coups by the Roman senate. In AD 49 he expelled the Jews from Rome because of disputes about a certain “Chrestus,” probably Christ (cf. Acts 18:2). No one is sure whether Claudius was murdered or died of old age, but he remained a sharp contrast to the brutal excesses of Caligula and Nero.
Nero, the stepson of Claudius, reigned in the years AD 54–68. The early period of his rule was marked by cultural endeavors and diplomatic efforts. The later years were, in contrast, distinguished by tyranny and self-aggrandizement. There was a Jewish revolt against Rome in Judea (AD 66–70) during Nero’s reign, and Vespasian was sent to pacify the territory. According to ancient sources, Nero accused Christians of starting the fire of Rome in AD 64 and subjected them to the cruelest of punishments, including crucifixion, being thrown to wild animals, and even being burned alive. It probably was during this time that the apostles Peter and Paul were martyred in Rome. Nero eventually was declared a public enemy by the Roman senate, and he committed suicide before he could be captured in AD 68. There arose a “Nero redivivus” legend, whereby many hoped or feared that Nero had not died in AD 68 but had fled to Parthia and would return to Rome in order to destroy it (Sib.Or. 4.119–124; 5.137–141, 361–396), and this arguably stands behind the imagery of Rev. 13:3; 17:8–11.
The suicide of Nero left a power vacuum in Rome, and AD 69 saw no less than four emperors ascend the throne: Galba, Otho, Vitellius, and finally Vespasian. Galba was governor of Hispania Tarraconensis and was invited to become emperor by the senate, but he was killed by the praetorian guard after they were bribed by the praetor Otho. Otho himself committed suicide after his forces were defeated by Vitellius, the commander of the legions on the Rhine. Vitellius became emperor, but he was fiscally irresponsible and murdered many of his rivals. The legions in the Danube, Egypt, Syria, and Judea had declared Vespasian emperor and marched on Rome. Vespasian controlled the grain supplies to Rome from Egypt and had a superior force. Vitellius’s forces were defeated at Bedriacum, and Vitellius went into hiding but eventually was killed in Rome. Vespasian was declared emperor by the senate, and so began the Flavian dynasty, which restored order after the chaos of civil war.
The Flavians ruled in the years AD 69–96. Vespasian (r. AD 69–79) consolidated the empire after its year of strife and instituted new taxes, such as the fiscus judaicus, a war reparation tax placed on all Jews and paid to the temple of Jupiter in lieu of the Jerusalem temple tax. Vespasian was succeeded by his sons Titus (r.AD 79–81) and Domitian (r. AD 81–96). When Vespasian sailed to Rome from Judea, Titus was left in charge of the siege of Jerusalem, which he completed and celebrated in a triumph in Rome in AD 72. This triumph is memorialized in the Arch of Titus, which depicts Roman soldiers bringing the vessels of the temple to Rome as part of the booty taken. Later Roman writers regarded Domitian as a malevolent and malicious tyrant (e.g., Tacitus, Suetonius), but this probably is an exaggeration caused partly by a desire to highlight the greatness of succeeding emperors such as Nerva and Trajan. It probably was during the reign of Domitian that some Christians in Asia Minor were being persecuted for their failure to worship the emperor, as depicted in the book of Revelation.
Table 7. Roman Emperors (31 BC–AD 117)
31 BC-AD 14 – Augustus
AD 14-37 – Tiberius
AD 37-41 – Caligula
AD 41-54 – Claudius
AD 54-68 – Nero
AD 68-69 – Galba
AD 69 – Otho
AD 69 – Vitellius
AD 69-79 – Vespasian
AD 79-81 – Titus
AD 81-96 – Domitian
AD 96-98 – Nerva
AD 98-117 – Trajan
Military
Military expeditions expanded Rome’s control of foreign territories and safeguarded its borders from incursion, most threateningly from the Germanic tribes east of the Rhine River and north of the Danube River and from the Parthian (=Neo-Persian) Empire east of the Euphrates River. A Roman legion consisted of around six thousand men, including cavalry. Under Tiberius, there were twenty-five legions stationed across the empire: eight on the Rhine, three in Spain, two in Egypt, four in Syria, two in Africa, and six in the Danube region. In terms of command structures, the legions were under the control of certain regional commands by men of consular rank, including two on the Rhine, one in Spain, one in Syria, and three in the Balkans (Tacitus, Ann. 4.5). These were among the most powerful persons outside the ruling family and could be kingmakers or contenders during times of civil war. A legion was divided into ten cohorts and commanded by a legate, usually of senatorial rank. Units of one hundred were commanded by centurions, and service in the legions was set at between twenty and twenty-five years. Upon recruitment, the soldier swore an oath of loyalty to the emperor (sacramentum) that was renewed annually. During times of peace, Roman soldiers could perform a number of civil tasks relating to taxation, building projects, and policing.
Centurions are mentioned several times in the NT (e.g., Matt. 8:5; Mark 15:39; Acts 10:1; 21:32; 27:1). There is a mention of a “legion” of demons that oppressed the Gerasene demoniac (Mark 5:9), and Jesus refers to the possibility of the Father sending him “legions” of angels (Matt. 26:53). Military terminology is very apparent in Paul’s letters, where he refers to fighting armor (Rom. 13:11–13; 2Cor. 6:7; Eph. 6:10–18), compares commitment to Christ to military service (2Tim. 2:4), refers to his coworkers as “soldiers” or “fellow soldiers” (Phil. 2:25; Philem. 2; 2Tim. 2:3), and likens ministerial remuneration to a soldier being paid his salarium (1Cor. 9:7).
Culture and Religion
One of the primary reasons for Rome’s rise and dominance, militarily and culturally, was its capacity to absorb other peoples and even other gods into its constituency and pantheon. Its constantly growing pantheon, application of the rule of law, and superior military force made Rome what it was: a melting pot of all cultures and a Romanizer of other cultures.
Roman society was heavily stratified, but social mobility, upward and downward, was possible. Wealth, marriage, education, and military exploits were the primary means to social advancement. The senatorial class represented the wealthy nobility of Rome and provided the primary cohort of civil and military administrators. The equestrian class (or “knights,” as they are sometimes called) were a larger group of less wealthy Roman citizens. Decurions were members of civil councils in provincial cities who often acted as magistrates and were leaders of local communities. The plebeians represented the general citizenry of Rome, who, until the time of Tiberius, had some power in electing officials. Finally, there were freedmen, who were ex-slaves usually in a relationship with their former master, and also slaves, who were regarded as little more than property.
The ancient Roman religions focused on the numen, the somewhat impersonal divine power associated with certain localities. From the third century BC, Greek deities were assimilated and Romanized, so that Zeus became Jupiter, and Vesta was identified as Hestia. The Capitoline Hill was crowned with a temple that was dedicated around 500 BC to Jupiter, Minerva, and Juno. These were the principal gods of Rome, although others were added to the pantheon as the Romans conquered other peoples and adopted their gods. Other gods also received greater honor, such as the goddess Pax, the personification of peace (based on the Greek goddess Eirene); Vespasian built and dedicated a temple in her honor in Rome in AD 75. The Roman emperor was the Pontifex Maximus and supreme high priest of Rome and the empire. In the mid- to late first century AD, the fastest-growing religion was the imperial cult, the worship of (usually) deceased Roman emperors. This cult became popular in the eastern Mediterranean cities, where worship of rulers was commonplace, but was regarded with indifference in Rome.
Religions and philosophies from all over the known world eventually made their way to Rome. Egyptian rites and religions gained followings, Mithraism acquired currency within the ranks of the military and among public servants, Judaism entered Rome probably with the Hasmonean delegation sent there around 139 BC, and Christianity came to Rome probably during the late 30s and early 40s of the first century AD through Jewish pilgrims visiting the east and through Judean immigration to Rome. Many Roman intellectuals lamented the fact that so many foreign superstitions had found their way to Rome, and that Roman peoples found them more attractive than their own state religion. Roman religion was largely controlled by the state through a set calendar and the appointment of priests and vestal virgins. It was practiced in public and in the home. As such, religious life was very much intertwined with social and political life. Roman religion engendered the need for its citizens to act with pietas, the honoring of one’s obligations to the gods, and with religio, which designated appropriate scruples and rites in the presence of the gods.
Summary
The birth of the church and the growth of Christianity took place within the wider social, religious, and cultural context of the Greco-Roman world. The politics and power of the Roman Empire provide the backdrop for the birth of Jesus (Luke 2:1), and since Rome was considered to be the center of the world, it was necessary that Paul himself testify to Jesus Christ there (Acts 19:21). The history, literature, and cultural background of Rome form an important background to the NT and should be studied along with the history and literature of Judaism during the time of Jesus and the apostles. Although the Romans were the primary threat to the survival of Christians in the ancient world, after the conversion of Constantine in the fourth century AD, they became the primary means by which Christianity spread to the rest of Europe and western Asia. See also Roman Law.
The historical origins of Christianity need to be set against Jewish history, beliefs, and culture in Palestine and the eastern Mediterranean, but they also need to be set in the context of the wider Greco-Roman world that was dominated politically and militarily by the Roman Empire.
From Republic to Empire
Rome began as a city-state but soon became a transcontinental empire reaching over parts of Europe, Africa, and Asia. Rome emerged as the most dominant force in the Mediterranean after it defeated Carthage in the Second Punic War (218–201 BC). Thereafter, Rome began to expand its control and power over the various Hellenistic city-states in the east, including Macedonia, Illyria, and Asia Minor. By the mid-first century AD, Rome had also conquered or annexed Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Cyrene, Gaul, Spain, North Africa, and Armenia.
The transition from the Roman Republic to the Roman Empire took place under the Roman emperors beginning with Julius Caesar (100–44 BC), who, after crossing the Rubicon and defeating Pompey, was proclaimed dictator perpetuus (“dictator for life”). The period after Julius Caesar’s assassination (44 BC) was a time of political upheaval as Rome was marred by a series of civil wars. The first was between Octavius and Antony against Caesar’s assassins Brutus and Cassius. This climaxed in the Battle of Philippi (42 BC), which the former allies of Julius Caesar won. The second was between Octavius and Antony, where Antony and Cleopatra were defeated at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, leaving Octavius as the undisputed leader of Rome.
Octavius was given the honorific name “Augustus” by the senate. His reign (31 BC–AD 14) marked a period of consolidation, reorganization, and renewal of the Roman Empire. Augustus embarked on an empire-wide policy of fiscal rationalization, developed a constitutional settlement for Rome, centralized his military authority over the various provinces, and had Julius Caesar deified. Writers and artists of the era heralded Augustus’s reign as a time of unprecedented peace and security—peace from civil war and security from the Germanic tribes in the north and the Parthian Empire in the east. Worship of the emperor became more frequent especially in the Roman East, although Augustus did not permit it in Rome. What is most significant about Augustus is that it is with his reign that the Roman Empire essentially began. He was the emperor at the time of Jesus’ birth (Luke 2:1). It was under Trajan (AD 98–117), however, that the Roman Empire expanded to its largest area, encompassing parts of Britain and Persia.
Emperors (AD 14–98)
Tiberius, Augustus’s adopted heir, reigned in the years AD 14–37. He was a highly successful military general, but as emperor he was remembered as being gloomy and melancholic. Tiberius even went into a self-imposed exile for a time, leaving the praetorian prefect Sejanus in charge until Tiberius finally had him executed for treason. It was during the reign of Tiberius that Jesus conducted his ministry in Palestine.
Tiberius was succeeded by his adopted grandson Caligula, who reigned in the years AD 37–41. Caligula was the son of the popular Roman general Germanicus, who died in Antioch in AD 19. Historical sources are not favorably disposed toward Caligula, who was remembered as a malevolent tyrant given to self-aggrandizement and sexual perversity. In AD 39/40 Caligula departed from imperial policy that permitted emperor worship in the east and veneration of deceased emperors in Rome, and he often appeared dressed as a god in public and demanded worship as a living god. During this time he deposed Herod Antipas, the tetrarch of Galilee and Perea, on suspicion of consorting with Parthia (Josephus, Ant. 18.7). Caligula also ordered that his statue be placed in the holy of holies in the Jerusalem temple (Philo, Embassy 203). Petronius, the governor of Syria, knowing that such an act would lead to civil war, refused to comply and appealed to Caligula to reverse the order. In response, Caligula sent an order to Petronius that he commit suicide. Fortunately, news of Caligula’s assassination by a conspiracy involving the praetorian guard and senators reached Petronius first.
Claudius, Caligula’s uncle, reigned in the years AD 41–54, and his rule was defined by numerous public works, a reordering of the judicial system, a torrid series of marriages, the conquest of Britain, and a number of attempted coups by the Roman senate. In AD 49 he expelled the Jews from Rome because of disputes about a certain “Chrestus,” probably Christ (cf. Acts 18:2). No one is sure whether Claudius was murdered or died of old age, but he remained a sharp contrast to the brutal excesses of Caligula and Nero.
Nero, the stepson of Claudius, reigned in the years AD 54–68. The early period of his rule was marked by cultural endeavors and diplomatic efforts. The later years were, in contrast, distinguished by tyranny and self-aggrandizement. There was a Jewish revolt against Rome in Judea (AD 66–70) during Nero’s reign, and Vespasian was sent to pacify the territory. According to ancient sources, Nero accused Christians of starting the fire of Rome in AD 64 and subjected them to the cruelest of punishments, including crucifixion, being thrown to wild animals, and even being burned alive. It probably was during this time that the apostles Peter and Paul were martyred in Rome. Nero eventually was declared a public enemy by the Roman senate, and he committed suicide before he could be captured in AD 68. There arose a “Nero redivivus” legend, whereby many hoped or feared that Nero had not died in AD 68 but had fled to Parthia and would return to Rome in order to destroy it (Sib.Or. 4.119–124; 5.137–141, 361–396), and this arguably stands behind the imagery of Rev. 13:3; 17:8–11.
The suicide of Nero left a power vacuum in Rome, and AD 69 saw no less than four emperors ascend the throne: Galba, Otho, Vitellius, and finally Vespasian. Galba was governor of Hispania Tarraconensis and was invited to become emperor by the senate, but he was killed by the praetorian guard after they were bribed by the praetor Otho. Otho himself committed suicide after his forces were defeated by Vitellius, the commander of the legions on the Rhine. Vitellius became emperor, but he was fiscally irresponsible and murdered many of his rivals. The legions in the Danube, Egypt, Syria, and Judea had declared Vespasian emperor and marched on Rome. Vespasian controlled the grain supplies to Rome from Egypt and had a superior force. Vitellius’s forces were defeated at Bedriacum, and Vitellius went into hiding but eventually was killed in Rome. Vespasian was declared emperor by the senate, and so began the Flavian dynasty, which restored order after the chaos of civil war.
The Flavians ruled in the years AD 69–96. Vespasian (r. AD 69–79) consolidated the empire after its year of strife and instituted new taxes, such as the fiscus judaicus, a war reparation tax placed on all Jews and paid to the temple of Jupiter in lieu of the Jerusalem temple tax. Vespasian was succeeded by his sons Titus (r.AD 79–81) and Domitian (r. AD 81–96). When Vespasian sailed to Rome from Judea, Titus was left in charge of the siege of Jerusalem, which he completed and celebrated in a triumph in Rome in AD 72. This triumph is memorialized in the Arch of Titus, which depicts Roman soldiers bringing the vessels of the temple to Rome as part of the booty taken. Later Roman writers regarded Domitian as a malevolent and malicious tyrant (e.g., Tacitus, Suetonius), but this probably is an exaggeration caused partly by a desire to highlight the greatness of succeeding emperors such as Nerva and Trajan. It probably was during the reign of Domitian that some Christians in Asia Minor were being persecuted for their failure to worship the emperor, as depicted in the book of Revelation.
Table 7. Roman Emperors (31 BC–AD 117)
31 BC-AD 14 – Augustus
AD 14-37 – Tiberius
AD 37-41 – Caligula
AD 41-54 – Claudius
AD 54-68 – Nero
AD 68-69 – Galba
AD 69 – Otho
AD 69 – Vitellius
AD 69-79 – Vespasian
AD 79-81 – Titus
AD 81-96 – Domitian
AD 96-98 – Nerva
AD 98-117 – Trajan
Military
Military expeditions expanded Rome’s control of foreign territories and safeguarded its borders from incursion, most threateningly from the Germanic tribes east of the Rhine River and north of the Danube River and from the Parthian (=Neo-Persian) Empire east of the Euphrates River. A Roman legion consisted of around six thousand men, including cavalry. Under Tiberius, there were twenty-five legions stationed across the empire: eight on the Rhine, three in Spain, two in Egypt, four in Syria, two in Africa, and six in the Danube region. In terms of command structures, the legions were under the control of certain regional commands by men of consular rank, including two on the Rhine, one in Spain, one in Syria, and three in the Balkans (Tacitus, Ann. 4.5). These were among the most powerful persons outside the ruling family and could be kingmakers or contenders during times of civil war. A legion was divided into ten cohorts and commanded by a legate, usually of senatorial rank. Units of one hundred were commanded by centurions, and service in the legions was set at between twenty and twenty-five years. Upon recruitment, the soldier swore an oath of loyalty to the emperor (sacramentum) that was renewed annually. During times of peace, Roman soldiers could perform a number of civil tasks relating to taxation, building projects, and policing.
Centurions are mentioned several times in the NT (e.g., Matt. 8:5; Mark 15:39; Acts 10:1; 21:32; 27:1). There is a mention of a “legion” of demons that oppressed the Gerasene demoniac (Mark 5:9), and Jesus refers to the possibility of the Father sending him “legions” of angels (Matt. 26:53). Military terminology is very apparent in Paul’s letters, where he refers to fighting armor (Rom. 13:11–13; 2Cor. 6:7; Eph. 6:10–18), compares commitment to Christ to military service (2Tim. 2:4), refers to his coworkers as “soldiers” or “fellow soldiers” (Phil. 2:25; Philem. 2; 2Tim. 2:3), and likens ministerial remuneration to a soldier being paid his salarium (1Cor. 9:7).
Culture and Religion
One of the primary reasons for Rome’s rise and dominance, militarily and culturally, was its capacity to absorb other peoples and even other gods into its constituency and pantheon. Its constantly growing pantheon, application of the rule of law, and superior military force made Rome what it was: a melting pot of all cultures and a Romanizer of other cultures.
Roman society was heavily stratified, but social mobility, upward and downward, was possible. Wealth, marriage, education, and military exploits were the primary means to social advancement. The senatorial class represented the wealthy nobility of Rome and provided the primary cohort of civil and military administrators. The equestrian class (or “knights,” as they are sometimes called) were a larger group of less wealthy Roman citizens. Decurions were members of civil councils in provincial cities who often acted as magistrates and were leaders of local communities. The plebeians represented the general citizenry of Rome, who, until the time of Tiberius, had some power in electing officials. Finally, there were freedmen, who were ex-slaves usually in a relationship with their former master, and also slaves, who were regarded as little more than property.
The ancient Roman religions focused on the numen, the somewhat impersonal divine power associated with certain localities. From the third century BC, Greek deities were assimilated and Romanized, so that Zeus became Jupiter, and Vesta was identified as Hestia. The Capitoline Hill was crowned with a temple that was dedicated around 500 BC to Jupiter, Minerva, and Juno. These were the principal gods of Rome, although others were added to the pantheon as the Romans conquered other peoples and adopted their gods. Other gods also received greater honor, such as the goddess Pax, the personification of peace (based on the Greek goddess Eirene); Vespasian built and dedicated a temple in her honor in Rome in AD 75. The Roman emperor was the Pontifex Maximus and supreme high priest of Rome and the empire. In the mid- to late first century AD, the fastest-growing religion was the imperial cult, the worship of (usually) deceased Roman emperors. This cult became popular in the eastern Mediterranean cities, where worship of rulers was commonplace, but was regarded with indifference in Rome.
Religions and philosophies from all over the known world eventually made their way to Rome. Egyptian rites and religions gained followings, Mithraism acquired currency within the ranks of the military and among public servants, Judaism entered Rome probably with the Hasmonean delegation sent there around 139 BC, and Christianity came to Rome probably during the late 30s and early 40s of the first century AD through Jewish pilgrims visiting the east and through Judean immigration to Rome. Many Roman intellectuals lamented the fact that so many foreign superstitions had found their way to Rome, and that Roman peoples found them more attractive than their own state religion. Roman religion was largely controlled by the state through a set calendar and the appointment of priests and vestal virgins. It was practiced in public and in the home. As such, religious life was very much intertwined with social and political life. Roman religion engendered the need for its citizens to act with pietas, the honoring of one’s obligations to the gods, and with religio, which designated appropriate scruples and rites in the presence of the gods.
Summary
The birth of the church and the growth of Christianity took place within the wider social, religious, and cultural context of the Greco-Roman world. The politics and power of the Roman Empire provide the backdrop for the birth of Jesus (Luke 2:1), and since Rome was considered to be the center of the world, it was necessary that Paul himself testify to Jesus Christ there (Acts 19:21). The history, literature, and cultural background of Rome form an important background to the NT and should be studied along with the history and literature of Judaism during the time of Jesus and the apostles. Although the Romans were the primary threat to the survival of Christians in the ancient world, after the conversion of Constantine in the fourth century AD, they became the primary means by which Christianity spread to the rest of Europe and western Asia. See also Roman Law.
Second Peter is a model of the Christian approach to thosewho are tempted to follow another gospel.
Outline
I.Greetings (1:1–2)
II.Put God’s Grace to Work (1:3–11)
III.Remember the Basis for Your Faith (1:12–21)
IV.Reject False Teachers (2:1–22)
V.On This Basis, Look to the Future (3:1–18)
Authorshipand Date
Theauthor is identified as “Simeon” Peter, using the Hebrewspelling of the name (1:1 ESV, NRSV; cf. Acts 15:14). He is “aservant and apostle of Jesus Christ” (1:1; cf. Rom. 1:1; Titus1:1; James 1:1; Jude 1) and an eyewitness of his transfiguration(1:16–18; cf. Mark 9:2). He speaks affectionately of Paul as acolleague (3:15). He bases his argument against false teachers on theScriptures and his own testimony as well as that of the othereyewitnesses (1:16; cf. 1Pet. 5:1) of Jesus’ work. Herefers (3:1) to an earlier letter that he wrote to the same people,probably a reference to 1Peter.
Anumber of second-century authorities report that Peter ministered inRome, on and off, for up to twenty-five years prior to his executionby Nero in AD 65. Here he speaks of his own imminent execution,recalling Jesus’ words to him (1:14; cf. John 21:19). He speaksof having taken steps to ensure that his testimony will be availableafter his death, which may be an allusion to Mark’s Gospel, aslater Christian writers tell us.
Towardthe end of the second century some doubted the authenticity of2Peter. A number of works had appeared in the second centuryclaiming to be by Peter. The early church was well aware of the useof forgeries written in the names of the apostles to spread falseteaching (even during their lifetimes [cf. 2Thess. 2:2]). Itappears that 2Peter was not as widely known or used as 1Peter,but the early church affirmed and defended the authenticity of bothletters.
Destination
Theletter gives no indication of its destination other than thereference to a former letter in 3:1. If this former letter was1Peter, then 2Peter would have been sent to the samecommunities (Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia [so1Pet. 1:1]). This possibility is supported by the similar useof traditions concerning Noah and Enoch in both letters. However,1Peter gives no indication that Peter had any personalacquaintance with his addressees, whereas 2Peter does (1:16).Given the extensive allusions to Jewish traditions not found in theOT, we can conclude that Peter was writing to Jewish Christians towhom these traditions had a strong appeal.
Relationshipto the Epistle of Jude
SecondPeter 2 and Jude 4–21 are extraordinarily similar not only incontent and wording but also in their order. Scholars have speculatedas to which author used the work of the other or whether both used acommon source. We have no evidence that would settle the question.What we do know is that both letters interact heavily with thetraditions associated with 1Enoch.
TheseEnochic traditions differ from the teachings of the Pharisees and theSadducees. They were accepted as authentic and authoritative at leastby the Qumran community/Essenes (cf. CD-A 6:1–6; Jub. 1.1–9;4.17–19). Whereas Jude (14–15) cites 1En. 1.9directly, 2Peter only speaks about these stories.
Accordingto the Enochic traditions, salvation was for ethnically pure Israel,observing rigorously the specifications for worship and lifestylelaid down in these pseudepigraphical revelations. While thistradition expected a day of judgment similar to that set forth in theScriptures, it differed with the Christian gospel in itsunderstanding of the origins of sin and evil (people are initiallyvictims, not perpetrators) and of the way of salvation (rigorouslykeeping the Enochic rules). The Son of Man (of Dan. 7:13–14) isEnoch (1En. 71), not Jesus. There is no place here for acrucified Messiah whose death would atone for sin, for theabandonment of OT food laws and sacrifices, or the acceptance ofuncircumcised Gentiles into the assembly.
SecondPeter and Jude deal in the strongest terms with false teachers whoprofess to base their teaching on fraudulent revelations (2Pet.1:16; Jude 1:8) and who deny Jesus as Lord. This tradition focusedheavily on the Zadokite priesthood and the need to restore a puretemple. Peter and Jude’s polemic makes extensive connectionsbetween false teaching and all manner of corruption and uncleannessthat would disqualify such a priesthood (2Pet. 2:2, 10, 13, 15,19, 22; cf. 1Pet. 2:1–10; Jude 8, 11–13, 16).
Thesimilarities between the two letters probably are the result of thetwo authors conferring together in some way. We know that Peter andhis family traveled on missionary work, as did the brothers of Jesus(1Cor. 9:5). We do not know where Jude was when either of theseletters was written. The urgency that provoked Jude’s letter isalso reflected in 2Peter. The church was facing physicalpersecution in Rome as well as these false teachers who sought tolead Jewish believers away from Jesus. Meanwhile, Roman control ofJudea was crumbling.
MainThemes
SecondPeter focuses first on the work of God in Christ, which saves thosewho believe in Jesus (1:3). This faith is based on the knowledge ofGod and of Jesus (1:2) and is a response to the gospel call. God hasgiven to the believer everything needed to live in a godly way, toendure, and to discern truth from error so as to die assured of nothaving been deceived (1:4).
Petergrounds that assurance in the Scriptures (1:19–21), in thetestimony of the eyewitnesses of Jesus (1:12–16), includinghimself, and in the writings of the apostle Paul, to whom Jesus hadgiven wisdom for this purpose (3:15–16). One develops certaintyin the faith not only by referring to these sources but also byputting the faith into practice (1:5, 10, 15). The faith then isrooted in history, not in “cleverly invented stories”(1:16). Consequently, Peter expresses his passion to see that hiseyewitness account will be accessible to the next generation(1:14–15).
Hespeaks plainly of “Scripture” as an identifiable body oftexts written at the instigation of the Holy Spirit (1:20–21)and places the writings of Paul on the same level (3:16). By this,Peter implies that his letter is to be received as carrying the sameauthority and usefulness.
Falseteachers are a permanent challenge to God’s people. Doctrineand behavior are products of each other (2:1–3).
Peteris particularly concerned that his readers not think that Jesus’delay in appearing is proof that the apostolic witnesses were wrong(3:3–4). Jesus has not returned because were he to do so, itwould end all opportunity for unbelievers to hear the gospel and besaved (3:9). God is gracious and long-suffering and is calling hispeople to reflect his character by giving people the opportunity tobe saved. His patience is salvation (3:15). The gospel mission, then,provides the second motivation for the believer to practice the faith(3:11–16) and not waver.
SecondPeter ends by challenging believers to constantly grow in theknowledge and grace of Christ (3:17–18).
Part of the Corinthian correspondence, along with1 Corinthians. These two letters are part of a larger body ofcorrespondence written by the apostle Paul to the Corinthian church.Paul visited Corinth on his second missionary journey (Acts 18:1–18)for a year and a half before leaving for Syria. This period can bedated quite precisely, since Acts mentions a court hearing beforeGallio, proconsul of Achaia, who served in AD 51–52. It wasseveral years later, during Paul’s third missionary journey,that the Corinthian correspondence was written.
Context
Whilein Ephesus, Paul heard of immorality in the church at Corinth andresponded with a letter (1 Cor. 5:9). This letter is lost buthas been designated by scholars as “Corinthians A”to distinguish it from the two canonical letters. About this time,three men from Corinth brought a financial gift to Paul (1 Cor.16:17) along with a list of questions, which Paul answers in anotherletter (see 1 Cor. 7:1). This letter, known to us as1 Corinthians, is designated by scholars as “Corinthians B,”since it is actually the second letter written by Paul to the church.Some time later, Paul heard that his letter had not solved many ofthe problems at Corinth, so he made a visit. This went very poorly(see 2 Cor. 2:1), and Paul sent a sorrowful letter (2 Cor.2:3–4, 9; 7:8, 12), designated by scholars as “Corinthians C.”This letter is also lost, though some think that it may be preservedin 2 Cor. 10–13. When Paul heard later that the Corinthianchurch had repented and wished to reconcile with him, he wasoverjoyed and wrote yet again. This letter, which scholars call“Corinthians D,” is known to us as 2 Corinthians.The sharp change in tone of chapters 10–13 perhaps represents afifth letter (designated “Corinthians E”) reflectingongoing friction with a strong minority faction within the church, orthese chapters may reflect Paul addressing one unrepentant divisionin the course of the “D” letter.
Purpose
Falseteachers in the church at Corinth had attacked Paul’s teachingand authority. Their charges can be seen in 2 Corinthians: Paulwas fickle (1:17, 18, 23), proud and boastful (3:1; 5:12), worldly(10:2), unimpressive in appearance and speech (10:10; 11:6), confusedand foolish (5:13; 11:16–19), dishonest (12:16–19), and“not a true apostle” (11:5; 12:11–12). Paul writesto defend his ministry and authority.
Themes
Paulgives a wonderful description of his apostolic ministry. He is acaptive in Christ’s triumphal procession, spreading the aromaof the gospel wherever he goes. This aroma is the smell of death tosome, but life to others (2:16). He needs no letter ofrecommendation, as the church at Corinth is his letter, written onhuman hearts. The gospel is unlike the fading glory in Moses’face (see Exod. 34:33); in fact, relationship with God during the oldcovenant was accomplished only through a veil, which still covershearts when Moses is read. Rather, Christians bask in the unveiledglory of the Lord and are transformed into the Lord’s imagewith ever greater glory (3:18), carrying in their bodies the death ofJesus, so that the life of Jesus may be revealed in them (4:10).
Theearthly consequence of this ministry is pain and suffering. Paul isconstantly struggling, yet never defeated (4:8–9). But thespiritual reward is great: an eternal home with the Lord in heaven,with the Spirit given to him during this life as a deposit of what isto come (5:5).
Beginningwith chapter 10, Paul’s tone changes sharply, becoming muchmore aggressive as he defends his apostolic authority. His gentlenature in person, which may have been mistaken by some of theCorinthians for weakness, is really Christlikeness in Paul. He fightsnot as the world does, but rather on the spiritual level, withweapons that can demolish all arguments (10:4). He hopes that he willnot have to unleash his power when he comes to see them, though hewill if necessary (10:6).
Paul’sopponents in Corinth have been exercising false authority beyondtheir rightful limits. They commend themselves and boast of theirworks. Paul promises to remain within the sphere assigned him by God,and he assures them that his sphere includes their church (10:13).
Inchapter 11 Paul begins speaking “as a fool.” Hisopponents apparently have referred to him as a fool, so he allowshimself some latitude to do this. If he were a fool, he would boastof his accomplishments as an apostle. His opponents boast aboutthemselves; Paul has more to boast about. He also is a Hebrew, adescendant of Abraham, and a servant of Christ; in fact, he is more.He has worked harder; he has been imprisoned more, beaten more,stoned, and shipwrecked; he has gone without food and water; he hasbeen cold and naked. He has had visions and revelations, and he hasbeen caught up in heaven and heard things that he may not repeat. Yethe would rather boast of his weakness, for his worldly weaknessallows him to be strong in Christ. Paul should have been commended bythe Corinthians, yet he has been reduced to having to defend himselfboastfully.
DuringPaul’s next visit, he will continue his habit of supportinghimself, so as not to be a burden on the Corinthians (see Acts 18:3).He has not asked them to support him (though it was his right [see1 Cor. 9]), yet they have accused him of trickery (12:16; seealso 1:12). He hopes that he will not be forced to deal harshly withthem, but they demand proof that Christ speaks through him (13:3). Hewould rather use the authority that God has given him to build themup, not tear them down (13:10).
Outline
I.Greeting (1:1–11)
II.Paul Defends His Ministry (1:12–7:16)
A.Paul explains his conduct (1:12–2:13)
B.Paul describes his ministry (2:14–7:1)
C.Reconciliation with the Corinthians (7:2–16)
III.The Collection for Jerusalem (8:1–9:15)
A.Generosity encouraged (8:1–15)
B.Titus’s credentials (8:16–9:5)
C.Results of giving generously (9:6–15)
IV.Paul Defends His Authority (10:1–13:10)
A.Paul gives them warning (10:1–18)
B.Paul speaks ironically as a “fool” (11:1–12:13)
C.Paul’s planned visit (12:14–13:10)
V.Conclusion (13:11–14)
Simon Peter is the best-known and the most colorful of Jesus’twelve disciples. The name “Peter” means “rock”in Greek. In some biblical texts, he is also called “Cephas,”which is the Aramaic word for “rock” (see esp. John1:42). Despite the ups and downs of Peter’s spiritual life, Godwas able to use him as the foundational apostle for the establishmentof the NT church. Peter first met Jesus immediately after Jesus’baptism, when Peter’s brother, Andrew, heard John the Baptist’sidentification of Jesus as the Lamb of God (John 1:35). In classicmissionary style, “the first thing Andrew did was to find hisbrother Simon and tell him, ‘We have found the Messiah’ ”(John 1:41). Peter’s official call to ministry took placelater, when he was fishing on the Sea of Galilee and Jesus issued thewell-known invitation “Come, follow me, ... and Iwill send you out to fish for people” (Matt. 4:19).
Peterwas the chief spokesman for the disciples at Caesarea Philippi whenJesus asked them, “Who do people say the Son of Man is?”(Matt. 16:13). Peter responded, “You are the Messiah, the Sonof the living God,” an insight given him by God the Father(16:16–17). Jesus promised him, “I tell you that you arePeter [petros], and on this rock [petra] I will build my church, andthe gates of Hades will not overcome it” (16:18). Yet Peteralmost immediately became a “stumbling block” to Jesuswhen he chided Jesus for saying that he must go to Jerusalem andsuffer many things and be killed (16:21–22). Another majorfailure by Peter came with his threefold denial of Jesus after Jesushad warned him, “This very night, before the rooster crows, youwill disown me three times” (Matt. 26:34). Fortunately, therewere tears of repentance, and Peter was forgiven and restored afterJesus’ threefold question (“Do you love me?” [John21:15–19]).
Jesus’death and resurrection, as well as the giving of the Holy Spirit onthe day of Pentecost, had stabilizing effects on Peter. After Jesus’ascension, Peter exercised primary leadership among the otherdisciples during the upper room prayer meetings and the choosing ofthe replacement for Judas (Acts 1). Peter clearly was the publicspokesman for the apostles on the day of Pentecost and a key playerin the establishment of the church in Jerusalem (Acts 2–5), inreceiving the first Samaritan converts (Acts 8:14–25), and inreceiving Cornelius as the first Gentile convert (Acts 10–11).Following Peter’s miraculous deliverance from prison in Acts12, he essentially disappears from recorded history. By the time ofthe Jerusalem council (Acts 15), Peter reappeared briefly, but bythis time he had been replaced by James as the leader of theJerusalem church. Peter apparently continued to live as a missionary(1Cor. 9:5), specifically “to the circumcised”(Gal. 2:7–8), for the rest of his life. Yet Peter was stillhuman, and on one occasion Paul gave him a stinging rebuke (Gal.2:11–21).
Duringhis travels, Peter undoubtedly visited the recipients of his laterletter 1Peter (and possibly 2Peter) in north central AsiaMinor (the regions of “Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia andBithynia” [1Pet. 1:1]), possibly Corinth (1Cor.1:12; 3:22), and, at least by the end of his life, Rome itself.According to tradition, he was put to death by Nero between AD 64 and68, apparently by being crucified upside down (cf. John 21:18–19).Peter’s life is a vivid illustration of the Christian’sfight for faith, God’s gracious provision, and Jesus’intercession on his behalf (“I have prayed for you, Simon, thatyour faith may not fail” [Luke 22:32]).
Although athletic competition was found across the ancientworld, sports receive little to no attention in the OT. Be it archery(1Sam. 20:20), chariotry (1Kings 9:22), slinging(1Chron. 12:2), or running (1Kings 1:5), no instanceoccurs in a demonstrably athletic context but rather refers tomilitary activity. This likely includes Jacob’s wrestling witha divine stranger (Gen. 32:24; see too Abner’s challenge toJoab’s men in 2Sam. 2:14, where a physical competitionamong some soldiers eventually breaks into combat). Athletic imageryseems to be used in Jer. 12:5, where God reasons with Jeremiah usingracing metaphors (see also the mention of a ball in Isa. 22:18, whichmay have athletic connotations).
Withthe conquest of Palestine by Alexander the Great in 332 BC,Hellenistic customs began to influence the native Jewish population,including an affinity for sports. AntiochusIV Epiphanes (r.175–164 BC) introduced Jerusalem’s first gymnasium, aGreek cultural center that held many athletic events. Athletes inGreek society competed naked, and events always honored pagandeities. Because of this and the reminder of foreign occupation, manyJews despised the gymnasium. But Greco-Roman athletics still pervadedthe culture, as evidenced in the NT. Paul and the author of Hebrewsare the only NT authors to refer to sports. The best example isPaul’s use of imagery from running, boxing, and athleticdiscipline when writing to the church at Corinth, the city of thefamed Isthmian games (1Cor. 9:24–27). Paul refers torunning no less than five more times in his letters (Gal. 2:2; 5:7;Phil. 2:16; 3:12–14; 2Tim. 4:7–8). The author ofHebrews also uses running imagery in Heb. 12:1–2.
Those who offer themselves freely and willingly, withoutcompulsion or consideration of value in return, to perform a task,make a vow, or serve another. In the OT, volunteers usually serve God(Deut. 23:23; 2Chron. 17:16; Ps. 110:3), Israel (Ezra 7:13;Neh. 11:2), or a leader in Israel (Judg. 5:2, 9; 1Chron.28:21). God himself is the ultimate volunteer, as he freely givesplace, purpose, and a partner to Adam (Gen. 2:15–22);unilaterally covenants with Abram to give him descendants, blessing,and land (Gen. 12:2–3; 15:17–21); liberates Israel frombondage in Egypt (Exod. 6:6–8; Deut. 20:1; Josh. 24:17; Ps.81:10); and remains faithful to Israel despite its repeated failures(Pss. 68:35; 106:44–46).
Inthe NT, God is also the sender of Jesus (Matt. 10:40; Mark 9:37; Luke4:18–21; John 4:34; 5:24, 30, 36–37), who heals of hisown volition (Luke 5:13), gives rest to the weary (Matt. 11:28), andlays down his life of his own accord for our redemption (Mark 10:45;John 10:18; Gal. 3:13–14; Eph. 5:2; Titus 2:14; 1Pet.1:18–19). With Jesus as the standard, the concept of willinglygiving of oneself and one’s possessions runs throughout the NT(Eph. 5:1–2). Christians are called to love and serve oneanother in spiritual and practical ways (Acts 2:44–45; Rom.12:9–21; 1Thess. 5:15–18; Philem. 14). They arealso to love their enemies and pray for their persecutors (Matt.5:44; Luke 6:27, 35). Those who wish to lead must first volunteerthemselves as servants to others (Matt. 20:27; Mark 9:35; Luke22:26). Elders are to shepherd voluntarily (1Pet. 5:2). Paul,who urges Christians to offer their bodies as living sacrifices (Rom.12:1), is himself a model of volunteerism and self-sacrifice (Acts20:34–35; 21:13; 1Cor. 9:19–23; 2Cor. 4:5;11:23–27).
Payment for the hire of one’s labor, often disburseddaily. The Bible refers to wages in connection with variousoccupations, including agricultural worker (Gen. 29:15; 30:27–29;Zech. 11:12; Matt. 20:1–16; John 4:36), artisan (1Kings5:6; Isa. 46:6), soldier (2Chron. 25:6; Ezek. 29:18–19;1Cor. 9:7), prostitute (Hos. 9:1; Mic. 1:7), priest (Judg.18:4; Num. 18:31), nurse (Exod. 2:9), and even the beast of burden(Exod. 22:15; Zech. 8:10; 1Tim. 5:18). Prophets were paid fortheir work (Amos 7:12), though a late OT and Second Temple periodtradition regarded the sin of Balaam as prophecy for hire (Deut.23:4; Neh. 6:12–13; 13:2; 2Pet. 2:15; Jude 11). In theNT, the concept of wage labor is extended to the church leader andthe apostle (Luke 10:7; 1Cor. 3:8; 1Tim. 5:18).
Behindmany references in the NT to wages lies theLatin term denarius (Gk. dēnarion) a small silver coinequivalent to a day’s wages (as in Matt. 20:2). Thus, in Mark6:37 “more than half a year’s wages” (NIV)translates what in Greek is “two hundred denarii” (NRSV)(see also Mark 14:5), and the commodityprices in Rev. 6:6 show massive inflation relative to the day’swage or denarius. In addition to the payment of wages with money, theBible attests the payment of wages in kind, including wives (Gen.29:17), livestock (Gen. 30:32), food (Num. 18:31; 1Sam. 2:5),and, in the case of soldiers, plunder (Ezek. 29:19).
Severaltexts regard the fair payment of wages as a basic element of socialjustice and, conversely, the withholding of wages as an evil.Deuteronomy 24:15 commands the employer to pay workers wages “eachday before sunset, because they are poor and are counting on it”(cf. Lev. 19:13; Job 7:2). Likewise, Mal. 3:5 denounces those whodefraud workers of wages (cf. Gen. 31:2), a stance continued in theNT (Rom. 4:4; James 5:4).
Thereward of righteousness and the punishment of wickedness aredescribed as a wage, as in Rom. 6:23: “The wages of sin isdeath.” Proverbs 10:16 says, “The wages of the righteousis life, but the earnings of the wicked are sin and death” (cf.Prov. 11:18; Isa. 65:7; 2Pet. 2:13).
Both the OT and the NT view wealth as ultimately a result ofGod’s blessing (Prov. 10:22). Abraham shows the right attitudeby refusing to accept plunder from the king of Sodom, recognizing Godas the sole source of his riches (Gen. 14:23). Solomon’s wealthwas seen as God’s favor (1Kings 3:13). Wealth and richesare said to be in the house of persons “who fear the Lord”(Ps. 112:1–3). However, material success alone is notnecessarily an indication of God’s approval, nor is poverty asign of God’s disfavor. Fundamentally, neither poverty norwealth can be superficially tied to divine displeasure or favor.
Balancedview.The Bible articulates a balanced view of wealth. It warns againsthaving an arrogant attitude by failing to acknowledge that the sourceof wealth is God (Deut. 8:17–18). There is danger in trustingin riches (Pss. 52:7; 62:10). The rich are charged not to be haughty,and to set their hopes not on uncertain riches but rather on God(1Tim. 6:17–18). The love of money is described as theroot of all kinds of evil (1Tim. 6:9–10), and it istherefore extremely difficult for a rich person to enter the kingdomof God (Matt. 19:24). The foolishness of materialism, making richesthe center of one’s life, is shown in the parable of thewealthy farmer (Luke 12:15–21). Instead of monetary greed, thespirit of contentment is commended, because even if lacking on thematerial level, one still has the Lord (Luke 12:15; Phil. 4:11; Heb.13:5). Material possessions should be gained rightly; effort anddiligence are required (Gen. 3:19; Prov. 10:4). Obtaining wealththrough dishonesty and ill-gotten gains is denounced and condemned(Prov. 11:26; 13:11; Jer. 17:11; Mic. 6:12).
God-centeredperspective.Wealth and material possessions are to be viewed from a God-centeredperspective. God is the one who provides everything; thus we shouldtrust him for our daily needs (Matt. 6:25–34; Luke 11:3). Job’sconfession in a time of loss, “The Lord gave and the Lord hastaken away; may the name of the Lord be praised,” shows anadmirable attitude to emulate (Job 1:21). God is the owner of allthings, and we are simply stewards and administrators of God’swealth. We need to remember that one day we will be accountable forthe use of our wealth (1Cor. 10:31). Jesus teaches us to seekthe kingdom of God first rather than his material blessings (Luke12:31–33). Anything that draws us away from serving God shouldbe avoided. We cannot serve both God and mammon (Matt. 6:24). Ourtreasures are to be in heaven, meaning that our central focus shouldbe on matters pertaining to the kingdom: “Where your treasureis, there your heart will be also” (Luke 12:32–34).
Responsibilityand generosity.With the possession of wealth comes the duty to give generously tothose in need (Prov. 11:24; 28:27). Prosperity is given as a means todo good; thus we ought to be rich in good deeds (1Tim. 6:18).Although it is a duty of the covenant community to take care of theneedy in the OT, it still emphasizes the voluntary heart (Deut.15:5–11). In 2Cor. 9:7, Paul presents the principle ofgiving in the NT: “Each of you should give what you havedecided in your heart to give, not reluctantly or under compulsion,for God loves a cheerful giver.” It should be not an exactionbut a willing gift (9:5).
TheChristian should emulate Jesus: “Though he was rich, yet for[our] sake he became poor, so that [we] through his poverty mightbecome rich” (2Cor. 8:9). Therefore, material offeringsto Christ should not be a burden (1Cor. 9:11). Sacrificialgiving is an expression of love to the Lord (2Cor. 9:12). Italso generates thanksgiving to God from those who receive it (2Cor.9:11). Worldly wealth should also be used for evangelistic purposes(Luke 16:8). If we are faithful in the use of money, we can betrusted with the kingdom’s spiritual riches (Luke 16:12–13).Although riches do not have eternal value in themselves, their properuse has eternal consequences (Luke 12:33; 1Tim. 6:19). One ofthe qualifications of a church overseer is to be free from the loveof money, and a deacon must not pursue dishonest gain (1Tim.3:3, 8). A good name is to be chosen over great riches (Prov. 22:1).James condemns as sinful the attitude of favoring the wealthy overthe poor. Nonpreferential love is the answer to prejudicialfavoritism (James 2:1–9).
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1. Casting the Net on the Other Side of the Boat
Illustration
John R. Steward
Since many of the followers of Jesus were fishermen, it made sense for Jesus to use fishing as an example of the Christian life. In Matthew 4:19, as Jesus is walking by the Sea of Galilee, he sees Simon Peter and Andrew in the process of fishing. He says to them, "Follow me, and I will make you fishers of men."
In this text, Jesus gives them another picture of the work they would be doing. On their own, they are not able to catch many fish, but when Jesus commands them to cast the net on the other side of the boat, they catch more fish than they can handle. How are we doing at catching fish? Perhaps the problem is that we keep doing it the same way and the Lord would like us to try a new method.
The apostle Paul in 1 Corinthians 9:22 says, "I have become all things to all men, that I might by all means save some." Maybe that's the same as casting your nets on the other side of the boat.
Several years ago when I was visiting Norway, the land of my great-grandparents, I learned something about evangelism. Since my wife was born in Norway, her family was giving us a tour of the country that on occasion was off the beaten track. On our way from Trondheim to the little island of Stord, we came across one of the famous Stave churches. These churches are around 1,000 years old. They are made of wood and are built with large posts or staves that go into the ground. At one time, there were around 1,000 Stave churches; now there are only thirty. One of the reasons is that the wood rots over time. However, the one that we saw had its posts in a rock foundation, and this explains why it is still in existence.
What was really fascinating to me were the symbols on the walls. I recognized most of them but there were some that I did not understand. I asked one of the guides what they meant. She told me that the symbols that I did not recognize were pagan symbols. It seems that when King Olaf became a Christian, he would go into the villages and demand that the people all become Christians. Since the Christian faith was forced on the people, they would display pagan symbols so as to meet the people where they were.
I am not suggesting that we use pagan symbols to reach our current society. However, we can do some things with music and in other areas that would better relate to our culture. If the Norwegians and the apostle Paul can learn that, certainly we can try to relate to our culture without destroying the gospel. Perhaps this is what Jesus meant by casting the net on the other side of the boat.
2. ATHLETE
Illustration
Stephen Stewart
1 Corinthians 9:25 - "Every athlete exercises self-control in all things. They do it to receive a perishable wreath, but we an imperishable."
2 Timothy 2:5 - "An athlete is not crowned unless he competes according to the rules."
Beginning long before written history, athletics of one kind or another have been found among primitive peoples in all parts of the world. Carvings made in ancient Egypt and other lands show men in a variety of athletic sports and games. But athletics had their real beginnings in ancient Greece.
Among the Greeks, the fullest possible development of both body and mind was a cherished ideal. The Greeks’ admiration for beautifully developed bodies set them apart from all other peoples. A large part of every boy’s education was conducted in the gymnasium, where he learned to wrestle, run, jump, and throw the discus and the javelin.
The most outstanding athletes competed in the Olympic, Pythian, Isthmian, and Nemean games. Winners won great honor not only for themselves but for their cities. Crowns of the wild olive were the only prizes awarded at the national games, but the cities rewarded their athletes generously.
Athletic games were introduced into Rome from Greece, and in the sixth century A.D. they supplanted the contests of the gladiators, professional performers who fought to the death. But most of the champions were Greeks.
However, professional athletes do not seem to have been known in early times, although 2 Samuel 2:14, "Let the young men arise and play before us" implies the existence of tournaments on the amateur level. We do know that a large tournament of various events was held every five years at Tyre.
But it is in the intertestamental and New Testament times that we find the most explicit references to them. Herod the Great awarded valuable prizes to the winners of chariot races and wrestling matches. The gymnasium which Herod built at Caesarea was a constant source of resentment to the Jews, as well as the earlier attempt at Hellenization by Antiochus IV. In the Greek games, the athletes competed naked, and the Jews found that many of their young men were refusing to have their sons circumcised because of this habit. Also, to the Jew, this glorification of the body was a sin.
Paul, however, having been brought up in an atmosphere in which athletics were so important, makes many references to athletic contests. He might have viewed such contests at Corinth and Antioch, and he uses them to compare the athlete to the good Christian.
Of course, the obvious comparison is with today’s athlete. If you are aware of the strenuous and rigorous training schedules required of athletes, such as those training for the Olympic teams, and such, you know that athletics is hard work, not just play. And that’s what St. Paul says the Christian life is, too!
3. Two Kinds of Preaching
Illustration
Scott Hoezee
Frederick Buechner once wrote about two kinds of preaching that just don't work very well. One form is what he termed "tourist preaching." You know how it is if you are in a foreign country as a tourist but cannot speak the native language: what do you end up doing when you have to ask for directions? You speak in English but each time you repeat yourself, you say it a little louder. We operate on the assumption that if only we speak English loudly, slowly, and distinctly enough, everyone in the world will be able to understand us. It doesn't work that way. The only language people understand is their own. We need to be sure that when we talk to people about God, it is in speech they can comprehend.
The other kind of preaching that fails to connect, Buechner says, is "algebraic preaching." x + y = z is a pretty typical algebra formula. If you know what number is represented by just the "y" of that problem, you know a little something but still won't likely solve the whole equation. If you know what both the "y" and the "z" are, then you can get the "x" pretty quickly. The problem with some preachers is that they lace their sentences with words like "atonement" and "righteousness," thinking that this will lead people to love Jesus. But for a lot of people, theological vocabulary is like an undefined "x" and "y" in an algebra problem: they are going to need something more to grasp the meaning of it all.
4. Volunteers or Duty Bound
Illustration
Michael P. Green
Do you apply the same standards of faithfulness to your Christian activities that you expect from other areas of your life?
If your car starts once every three tries, is it reliable?
If your paperboy skips delivery every Monday and Thursday, is he trustworthy?
If you don’t go to work once or twice a month, are you a loyal employee?
If your refrigerator stops working for a day or two every now and then, do you say, “Oh, well, it works most of the time”?
If your water heater provides an icy-cold shower every now and then, is it dependable?
If you miss a couple of loan payments every year, does the bank say, “Ten out of twelve isn’t bad”?
If you fail to worship God one or two Sundays a month, would you expect to be called a faithful Christian?
We expect faithfulness and reliability from things and other people. Does not God expect the same from us? The problem is that in our religious activities we see ourselves as volunteers rather than as duty bound (1 Cor. 9). For a volunteer, almost anything seems acceptable. For a bondservant who is duty bound, faithfulness is expected (Matt. 25:21).
5. A Three-Month Observation
Illustration
Leslie B. Flynn
A Christian baroness, living in the highlands of Nairobi, Kenya, told of a young national who was employed as her houseboy. After three months he asked the baroness to give him a letter of reference to a friendly sheikh some miles away. The baroness, not wishing the houseboy to leave just when he had learned the routine of the household, offered to increase his pay. The lad replied that he was not leaving for higher pay. Rather, he had decided he would become either a Christian or a Muslim. This was why he had come to work for the baroness for three months. He had wished to see how Christians acted. Now he wanted to work for three months for the sheikh to observe the ways of the Muslims. Then he would decide which way of life he would follow. The baroness was stunned as she recalled her many blemishes in her dealings with the houseboy. She could only exclaim, "Why didn't you tell me at the beginning!"
6. There Are Other Worlds to Sing In
Illustration
James W. Moore
His name was Paul. He lived in a small town in the Pacific Northwest some years ago. He was just a little boy when his family became the proud owners of one of the first telephones in the neighborhood. It was one of those wooden boxes attached to the wall with the shiny receiver hanging on the side of the box… and the mouthpiece attached to the front. Young Paul listened with fascination as his mom and dad used the phone… and he discovered that somewhere inside the wonderful device called a telephone lived an amazing person.
Her name was “Information Please"… and there was nothing she did not know. Information Please could supply anybody's number… and the correct time! Paul's first personal experience with “Information Please" came one day when he was home alone and he whacked his finger with a hammer. The pain was terrible and he didn't know what to do… and then he thought of the telephone. Quickly, he pulled a footstool up to the phone, climbed up, unhooked the receiver, held it to his ear and said: “Information Please" into the mouthpiece. There was a click or two and then a small clear voice spoke: “Information." “I hurt my finger," Paul wailed into the phone. “Isn't your mother home?" “Nobody's home but me," Paul cried. “Are you bleeding?" “No," Paul said. “I hit my finger with the hammer and it hurts." “Can you open your ice-box?" “Yes." “Then go get some ice and hold it to your finger." Paul did and it helped a lot.
After that Paul called “Information Please for everything. She helped him with his geography and his math. She taught him how to spell the word “fix." She told him what to feed his pet chipmunk. And then when Paul's pet canary died, she listened to his grief tenderly and then said: “Paul, always remember that there are other worlds to sing in." Somehow that helped and Paul felt better.
When Paul was nine years old, he moved with his family to Boston… and as the years passed he missed “Information Please" very much. Some years later as Paul was on his way out west to go to college, his plane landed in Seattle. He dialed his hometown operator and said, “Information Please."
Miraculously, he heard that same small clear voice that he knew so well. “Information." Paul hadn't planned this, but suddenly he blurted out: “Could you please tell me how to spell the word “fix?" There was a long pause. Then came the soft answer: “I guess your finger must be all healed by now." Paul laughed. “So it's really still you. Do you have any idea how much you meant to me during that time when I was a little boy?" “I wonder," she said, “if you know how much your calls meant to me! I never had any children and I used to look forward to your calls so much."
Paul told her how much he had missed her over the years and asked her if he could call her again when he was back in the area. “Please do," she said, “just ask for Sally." Three months later, Paul was back in Seattle. This time a different voice answered. He asked for Sally. “Are you a friend?" the operator asked. “Yes, a very old friend." Paul answered. “Well, I'm sorry to have to tell you this," she said. “Sally had been working part time the last few years because she was sick. She died 5 weeks ago." Before he could hang up, the operator said: “Wait a minute. Did you say your name was Paul?"
“Yes." “Well, Sally left a message for you. She wrote it down in case you called. Let me read it to you. It says: ‘When Paul calls, tell him that I still say: there are other worlds to sing in.' He will know what I mean." Paul thanked her and hung up and he did know what Sally meant.
“There are other worlds to sing in." Isn't that a beautiful and powerful thought? And that is precisely what John 3 is all about. “There are other worlds to sing in"… in this life and, yes, even beyond this life. When Jesus said to Nicodemus that night: “You must be born again." “You must be born from above." That's what he meant… you don't have to stay the way you are.
You can make a new start. You can have a new life. You can become a new person. There are other worlds to sing in.
7. Laws of the Harvest
Illustration
Staff
The following article is based on a sermon by missionary Del Tarr who served fourteen years in West Africa with another mission agency. His story points out the price some people pay to sow the seed of the gospel in hard soil:
I was always perplexed by Psalm 126 until I went to the Sahel, that vast stretch of savanna more than four thousand miles wide just under the Sahara Desert. In the Sahel, all the moisture comes in a four month period: May, June, July, and August. After that, not a drop of rain falls for eight months. The ground cracks from dryness, and so do your hands and feet. The winds of the Sahara pick up the dust and throw it thousands of feet into the air. It then comes slowly drifting across West Africa as a fine grit. It gets inside your mouth. It gets inside your watch and stops it. The year's food, of course, must all be grown in those four months. People grow sorghum or milo in small fields.
October and November...these are beautiful months. The granaries are full the harvest has come. People sing and dance. They eat two meals a day. The sorghum is ground between two stones to make flour and then a mush with the consistency of yesterday's Cream of Wheat. The sticky mush is eaten hot; they roll it into little balls between their fingers, drop it into a bit of sauce and then pop it into their mouths. The meal lies heavy on their stomachs so they can sleep.
December comes, and the granaries start to recede. Many families omit the morning meal. Certainly by January not one family in fifty is still eating two meals a day.
By February, the evening meal diminishes. The meal shrinks even more during March and children succumb to sickness. You don't stay well on half a meal a day.
April is the month that haunts my memory. In it you hear the babies crying in the twilight. Most of the days are passed with only an evening cup of gruel. Then, inevitably, it happens. A six or seven-year-old boy comes running to his father one day with sudden excitement. "Daddy! Daddy! We've got grain!" he shouts.
"Son, you know we haven't had grain for weeks."
"Yes, we have!" the boy insists. "Out in the hut where we keep the goats there's a leather sack hanging up on the wall I reached up and put my hand down in there Daddy, there's grain in there! Give it to Mommy so she can make flour, and tonight our tummies can sleep!"
The father stands motionless. "Son, we can't do that," he softly explains. "That's next year's seed grain. It's the only thing between us and starvation. We're waiting for the rains, and then we must use it."
The rains finally arrive in May, and when they do the young boy watches as his father takes the sack from the wall and does the most unreasonable thing imaginable. Instead of feeding his desperately weakened family, he goes to the field and with tears streaming down his face, he takes the precious seed and throws it away. He scatters it in the dirt! Why? Because he believes in the harvest.
The seed is his; he owns it. He can do anything with it he wants. The act of sowing it hurts so much that he cries. But as the African pastors say when they preach on Psalm 126, "Brother and sisters, this is God's law of the harvest. Don't expect to rejoice later on unless you have been willing to sow in tears."
And I want to ask you: How much would it cost you to sow in tears? I don't mean just giving God something from your abundance, but finding a way to say, "I believe in the harvest, and therefore I will give what makes no sense. The world would call me unreasonable to do this but I must sow regardless, in order that I may someday celebrate with songs of joy."
8. Law and Gospel
Illustration
Richard A. Jensen
Martin Luther asserted that the true theologian was the one who could rightly distinguish between law and gospel. When Lutherans, including this Lutheran, work at theology we almost always work within the parameters of law and gospel. Protestant theology in general talks about three uses of the law. The first use of law is usually termed the political or civil use of law. The second use of the law, the spiritual or theological use, is the law as a mirror in which we see our lives; the law as revealer of our sins. The third use of the law is law as a guide for Christian living. There is much debate even among Lutherans whether Luther taught the third use of the law. I do not believe that he did.
The function of the civil use of law is to help humankind create a civil society. Since all people bear the law within their being, all people can work to make society a more civil place to live. Preaching on the civil use of the law would call upon people to make use of their rational intelligence in making ethical decisions in life and in working toward a civil society. There is nothing particularly Christian about the civil use of the law. It need not, therefore, occupy too much of our preaching energy. The dialogical nature of the classroom is much better suited for the important discussions of the nature of the way we might best work for an improved civil order.
The theological or spiritual use of the law was for Luther the proper use of the law. The law, that is, reveals to us our sinfulness. "What then should we say? That the law is sin? By no means! Yet, if it had not been for the law, I would not have known sin .... Apart from the law sin lies dead. I was once alive apart from the law, but when the commandment came, sin revived and I died, and the very commandment that promised life proved to be death to me (Romans 7:7, 8-10)."
The law always kills! That was Luther's dictum about the spiritual use of the law. The law always leaves me helpless, consigned to wrath, doomed to death. This is the proper use of the law and is therefore the proper use of the law in preaching. To preach the law is to render people helpless in their relationship to God. The law kills us and leaves us dead in the eyes of God.
The third use of the law is the law as a guide to Christian living. For Calvin this was the proper use of the law. This marks a radical breach among protestants. Some protestants see the law as God's revealed law for life. Clearly such a law should be preached so that people know how to live! I have already stated my conviction that Martin Luther did not teach the third use of the law in this manner. He did not believe that God revealed the law either to Israel or to Christians as a guide to living! The most radical instance of this is Luther's comments on the law as given to Moses. Luther said, "I keep the commandments which Moses has given, not because Moses gave commandments, but because they have been implanted in me by nature, and Moses agrees exactly with nature etc."1
Luther believed that the law was natural to every person alive. That's the first use of the law! For Luther, therefore, the law does not need to be revealed. If that is the case then we will need spend little time preaching the law as a guide to life. Here, too, it may be better to deal with such ethical questions about life in discussion forums under the assumption that each person brings unique resources, resources given them by God the Creator, to the discussion.
Preach the law. Preach the costly law. Preach the law that costs sinners their life and brings them to the point that they cry out for a Savior.
9. Is It Wellwith Your Family? - Sermon Starter
Illustration
Brett Blair
I must candidly confess that when I was in seminary the 16th chapter of Paul's letter to the Romans didn't do much for me. It struck me as being boring nothing more than a long presentation of people's names, most of whom I could not pronounce; I usually skimmed over that part so I could get to what I considered to be the real Gospel. Over the years I have greatly changed my attitude about this particular chapter and I have discovered that there is much more to it than I had first imagined. For example, it is interesting to note that of the twenty-six people who Paul singles out for his personal greeting, six were women. Now that strikes me as being rather interesting, since Paul has frequently gotten a bum rap for being a male chauvinist. I think it also shows us the tremendous influence that women had in the early church. In the male oriented first century Palestine, it is telling that Paul could not describe the church without mentioning the significant role of women.
Verse 13 of chapter 16 is particularly interesting and it is one that scholars have struggled with over the centuries. Paul writes: "Give my greetings to Rufus, chosen in the Lord, and his mother and mine." Now this statement could be taken two ways. It could mean that Paul had two distinct women in mind--the mother of Rufus and his own personal mother. Or, he could be saying: "I salute Rufus and his mother, who is like a mother to me." If that is what he meant, and most Biblical scholars agree that that is indeed what he meant, then it raises some interesting speculation. When and where did Paul meet Rufus' mother? Did she nurse him through some serious illness?
Did she receive him into her home for an extended stay during his missionary journeys? How did this woman and Paul form such a close bond that he refers to her fondly as being like his mother? Mark tells us that Simon of Cyrene, the man who carried Jesus cross, had two sons: Alexander and Rufus. Was this the same Rufus to whom Paul was speaking? If that is true, his mother would be Simon of Syrene's wife. No one knows for sure who this remarkable woman was who served as a mother figure for the great Paul. But it really makes no difference, because what he writes makes an excellent springboard for a Mother's Day sermon.
Some people ridicule Mother's Day as a lot of sentimental drivel. They say that it is nothing more than the creation of the greeting card companies and the florists. And, to be perfectly candid, there are many ministers who shun this day because, they say, it is not a religious holiday. Furthermore, they preach from the lectionary, which has an assigned scriptural reading each week, and therefore mother's day is left out.
Well, of course, we must admit that there is sentiment to this day, but what is wrong with that? Seems to me that a little bit of sentiment is healthy. True enough, there are some women in the Bible, such as Jezebel and the vindictive Herodias, who had John the Baptist beheaded, who tarnish the institution of motherhood. There are women today who abandon, abuse, and corrupt their children and who create a poor model, but I like to think that these are the exceptions. Most mothers do the right thing and deserve recognition. So this morning I would like to join Paul and salute all of the mothers who are with us.
1. First, mothers should be saluted for their tenacious love.
2. Secondly, mothers should be saluted for the tremendous impact they have.
3. Third, mothers should be saluted because where they are, that is where home is.
10. What Can You Bear?
Illustration
Charles Ryrie
What is fruit? Actually the question ought to be phrased in the plural: What are fruits which a Christian can bear? The N.T. gives several answers to the question.
ONE, a developing Christian character is fruit. If the goal of the Christian life may be stated as Christlikeness, then surely every trait developed in us that reflects His character must be fruit that is very pleasing to Him. Paul describes the fruit of the Spirit in nine terms in Galatians 5:22-23, and Peter urges the development of seven accompaniments to faith in order that we might be fruitful (2 Peter 1:5-8). Two of these terms are common to both lists: love and self-control. The others are joy, peace, long-suffering, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, meekness, virtue, knowledge, endurance, piety, and brotherly love. To show these character traits is to bear fruit in one's life.
TWO, right character will result in right conduct, and as we live a life of good works we produce fruit (Colossians 1:10). This goes hand in hand with increasing in the knowledge of God, for as we learn what pleases Him, our fruitful works become more and more conformed to that knowledge. When Paul expressed how torn he was between the two possibilities of either dying and being with Christ or living on in this life, he said that living on would mean fruitful labor or work (Philippians 1:22). This phrase could mean that (1) his work itself was fruit, or (2) fruit would result from his work. In either case, his life and work were fruit. So may ours be.
THREE, those who come to Christ through our witness are fruit. Paul longed to go to Rome to have some fruit from his ministry there (Romans 1:13), and he characterized the conversion of the household of Stephanas as the first fruits of Achaia (I Corinthians 16:15).
FOUR, we may also bear fruit with our lips by giving praise to God and thankfully confessing His name (Hebrews 13:15). In other words, our lips bear fruit when we offer thankful acknowledgement to the name of God. And this is something we should do continually.
FIVE, we bear fruit when we give money. Paul designated the collection of money for the poorer saints in Jerusalem as fruit (Romans 15:28). Too, when he thanked the Philippians for their financial support of his ministry, he said that their act of giving brought fruit to their account (Philippians 4:17, KJV).
11. Grace That Cost
Illustration
Robert Beringer
The novelist, A. J. Cronin, tells a story from his own experience as a doctor that catches the wonder of the gift of grace. The Adams family at the close of the Second World War decided to open their home to a little refugee boy with the outlandish name of Paul Piotrostanalzi. The Adams had two daughters and a son named Sammy. Sammy and Paul became inseparable friends, but little Paul was a difficult child, and often disobeyed Mr. and Mrs. Adams. One day, little Paul went swimming in some contaminated water. He became very ill with a high fever, and the doctor suggested he sleep in an attic bedroom. But little Sammy missed his friend Paul so much that one night he crept up the attic stairs and into bed with Paul. Paul's hot breath fell on Sammy's neck all night. In the morning, Sammy, never a strong child, became deathly ill. Paul recovered his health, but Sammy died within three days. It was a terrible tragedy for the Adams family.
A year later Dr. Cronin decided to pay a call on the Adams family. But as he pulled into their driveway, he was amazed and then angry as he saw Paul, the refugee boy, working in the garden with Mr. Adams. He got out of his car and angrily approached Mr. Adams. "What's this Paul Pio........ whatever his name is, doing here after what he did to your family?" Mr. Adams looked at the doctor and then said quietly, "Dr. Cronin, you won't have any more trouble with Paul's name. You see, he's Paul Adams now. We've adopted him." That is a wonderful story of costly grace, and that is exactly the wonderful gift that Jesus once gave to a heart-hungry tax collector named Zacchaeus.
12. Give and Take
Illustration
James Packer
What is meant by fellowship in this verse? Gossip? Cups of tea? Tours? No. What is being referred to is something of a quite different order and on a quite different level. "They met constantly to hear the apostles teach, and to share the common life, and break bread and to pray. A sense of awe was everywhere. All whose faith had drawn them together held everything in common. With one mind they kept up their daily attendance at the temple, and, breaking bread in private houses, shared their meals with unaffected joy as they praised God" (Acts 2:42-47, New English Bible). That is fellowship as the new Testament understands it, and there is clearly a world of difference between that and mere social activities.
The Greek word for fellowship comes from a root meaning common or shared. So fellowship means common participation in something either by giving what you have to the other person or receiving what he or she has. Give and take is the essence of fellowship, and give and take must be the way of fellowship in the common life of the body of Christ.
Christian fellowship is two-dimensional, and it has to be vertical before it can be horizontal. We must know the reality of fellowship with the Father and with his Son Jesus Christ before we can know the reality of fellowship with each other in our common relationship to God (1 John 1:3). The person who is not in fellowship with the Father and the Son is no Christian at all, and so cannot share with Christians the realities of their fellowship.
13. Hymns at Midnight
Illustration
Larry Powell
Paul and Silashad been thrown into prison at Philippi because Paul had cast a demon from a slave girl. However, there were extenuating circ*mstances. It seems the slave girl allegedly had powers of divination which enabled her to engage in "fortune telling." Her owners had managed to turn her condition into a rather lucrative business. And, of course, when Paul removed the demon, he also eliminated the owner’s profit. Let’s think about that for a moment. Isn’t it fortunate that some people cannot receive the joy of a blessing because of a bitter spirit? A young girl, who is described by commentators as being mentally deranged, is healed! And yet all her owners could think about was the money her healing was going to cost them. I am reminded of the woman who went into the hospital for a physical examination without the knowledge of the minister or anyone else in the church. When her tests confirmed that she was in excellent health, she was dismissed to go home. A few days later, when the minister learned she had been in the hospital, he stopped by to see her. She proceeded to scold him because neither he nor anyone at the church had been to see her in the hospital (one and one-half days). She was sadly unable to enjoy the good news about her health because she had a bitterness in her spirit. It was the same kind of attitude that put Paul and Silas in prison.
Paul and Silas were singing hymns in the cell and, about midnight, there was a great earthquake. The foundations of the jail quivered and shook. The doors were flung open and the fetters of all the prisoners were unfastened. When the jailer saw that the doors were opened he supposed the prisoners had escaped. Knowing that he would be held accountable, he drew his sword and was about to take his own life when Paul said, "Do not harm yourself, for we are all here" (v. 28). The jailer immediately fell to his knees before Paul and said, "What must I do to be saved?" Paul answered, "Believe in the Lord Jesus Christ, and you will be saved." The jailer and his entire family were baptized and received into the fellowship of Christ. His life had been saved twice; once during the earthquake, and once from his own hand. Now he was saved for all eternity.
In all probability, the hymns which Paul and Silas were singing at midnight had little if anything to do with the Philippian jailer’s conversion. I would suspect that the eartquake stood him mentally erect, causing him to get in touch with the condition of his spirit. An earthquake can do that. So can foxholes, tornadoes, or a doctor saying to us, "I’m afraid I have some bad news." These and similar situations which you could name confront us with reality in a hurry. The earthquake made its impact on the jailer.
However, the fact that Paul and Silas did not attempt to escape from their cell also impacted the jailer. The coincidences were too numerous to ignore; the hymn singing, the earthquake, the cell being opened, the fetters on all the prisoners unfastened, and ... not the slightest attempt to escape. Something was going on here! The accumulation of events brought the jailer to his moment of conversion.
Let the record show that conversion may occur suddenly, in the twinkling of an eye, or it may come upon us slowly, cumulatively, as the result of assorted experiences and reflections. And in the simple story of the Philippian jailer, we find the format for conversion in its simplest form (16:29-31), regardless of time, place, or manner.
14. A Brother Like That
Illustration
C. Roy Angell
Pastor Roy Angell tells this story: A college friend of mine named Paul received a new automobile from his brother as a pre-Christmas present. On Christmas Eve, when Paul came out of his office, a street urchin (poor kid who hangs out in the streets) was walking around the shiny new car, admiring it. "Is this your car, mister?" he asked.
Paul nodded. "My brother gave it to me for Christmas."
The boy looked astounded."You mean your brother gave it to you, and it didn’t cost you nothing? Boy, I wish…"
He hesitated, and Paul knew what he was going to wish. He was going to wish he had a brother like that. But what the lad said jarred Paul all the way down to his heels, "I wish," the boy went on, "that I could be a brother like that."
Paul looked at the boy in astonishment, then impulsively asked, "Would you like to ride in my automobile?"
"Oh, yes! I'd love that!"
After a short ride the urchin turned, and with his eyes aglow said, "Mister, would you mind driving in front of my house?"
Paul smiled a little. He thought he knew what the lad wanted. He wanted to show his neighbors that he could ride in a big automobile.
But Paul was wrong again.
"Will you stop right where those two steps are?" the boy asked.
He ran up the steps. Then, in a little while, Paul heard him coming back, but he was not coming fast.
He was carrying his little polio-crippled brother. He sat him down on the bottom step, then sort of squeezed up against him and pointed to the car.
"There she is, Buddy, just like I told you upstairs. His brother gave it to him for Christmas, and it didn't cost him a cent. And someday I'm gonna give you one just like it. Then you can see for yourself all the pretty things in the Christmas windows that I've been trying to tell you about."
Paul got out and lifted the little lad to the front seat of his car. The shining-eyed older brother climbed in beside him and the three of them began a memorable holiday ride.
That Christmas Eve Paul learned what Jesus meant when He said: "There is more happiness in giving."
15. JOYS OF DISCIPLESHIP
Illustration
John H. Krahn
Coming home late one rainy evening, I was short on patience and a bit uptight. It was the pressures of ministry with too much to do and too little time to do it. That evening, I had planned to write a sermon on the joys of discipleship! As I began, I realized I needed a better frame of mind ... more joy in my own discipleship.
As I reflected on the topic, I was reminded that joy is neither something to be tied into weather, nor tied into a work schedule. There is no such thing as more joy-less work, more work-less joy. Christian joy should not be affected by wages: large raise - great joy, no raise - no joy. Joy in discipleship is something that transcends the ups and downs of living. It must be bigger than the shifting sands of existence.
Turning to the Bible, we see what it has to say about joy and its source. It says that there is fullness of joy in the presence of God. Real joy comes from moving into the presence of God and abiding in the love of Christ. When the spirit of God is alive in us, one of the blessings the spirit brings to us is joy.
A Japanese lady asked the headmistress of a mission school, "Do you take only beautiful girls in your school?"
"Why, no, we welcome all girls," was the reply.
"But I’ve noticed that all your girls are beautiful."
"Well," said the missionary, "we teach them to love our Savior Jesus Christ, and he gives them a look of beauty."
"I am a Buddhist, and I do not desire my daughter to become a Christian, yet I should like her to attend your school to get that look on her face."
Recently a distinguished Britisher said that he visited an American home that seemed to have everything - two cars in the garage, a beautiful living room with expensive furniture, a color TV set, a kitchen filled with the latest gadgets, and a large pool and beautiful patio. However, the lady of the house was reading a book entitled, How to Be Happy.
Happiness is to know the Savior. Joy in discipleship is not attachment to things but is attachment to Jesus. This is why Paul and Silas, after being beaten and thrown into prison, could pray and sing hymns to God and thereby witness to the prisoners who listened to them. Joy is a sign of the presence of God in one’s life. To be a disciple of the Lord Jesus Christ is to experience a deeper level of joy.
Christianity is a religion of joy and excitement. There is nothing unhappy about it. It is for people who want the joy that comes from being involved in something worthwhile. Once you taste the joys of discipleship, you’ll notice that your life will have more meaning. You will even want to return for a second helping.
16. Who Lives In You?
Illustration
Lee Griess
In his autobiography, Dr. A.J. Cronin tells of a neighboring family called the Adamses. Mr. Adams was an accountant in New York City, but he loved to spend all the hours he could working in his garden at their Connecticut home with his only son, Sammy. When WWII broke out, Mrs. Adams suggested they take a refugee child into their home. Mr. Adams wasn't much in favor of the idea, but he went along with it to please her. The child they received came from an orphanage in Central Europe with the impossible name of Paul Piotrostansilis. Unfortunately, as Paul learned the language of his new family in Connecticut, he also learned to manipulate the truth. He found it easy to steal and do mischief and broke the Adams' hearts many times. He did, however, develop a close friendship with the Adams' little son, Sammy.
One day, Paul, against their specific warning, went swimming in a polluted stream near their home and came back with an infection that brought with it a raging fever. Because of the possibility it might be contagious, Paul was put in a separate room and Sammy was told to stay away from him. Paul eventually pulled through the crisis, but, while he was still sick, one morning the family found Sammy asleep in bed with Paul, the two of them breathing into each other's faces. And sure enough, Sammy caught the disease. The fever raged through him, and only four days later, Sammy died.
Dr. Cronin remembered hearing about the tragedy while away on an extended study leave. He wrote his neighbors, expressing his sympathy for them, telling them that he, for one, would understand should they feel the need to send Paul back, after all the heartache he had caused them. A few months later, upon returning from his leave, Dr. Cronin went next door to visit the Adamses and was surprised to see the same familiar sight of a man and a boy working side by side in the garden. Only this time the boy was Paul.
"You still have him then?" Cronin inquired. "Yes," Henry Adams replied, "and he is doing much better now." "All I can say to you, Paul," Cronin muttered, "is that you're a pretty lucky boy." "Dr. Cronin," Henry interrupted, "you don't need to bother trying to pronounce his name anymore, either. He is now Paul Adams. We have adopted him. He is now the son we lost."
That's the kind of love God has for us. A love that Jesus expresses in the face of threatened death, a love that goes about its business, in spite of the consequences. Love that adopts us as children. Love that makes us citizens of heaven. Love that puts us in our places and gives us our inheritances.
17. Give To God The Things That Are God's
Illustration
Phyllis Faaborg Wolk
"Tell us what you think, Teacher. Is it lawful to pay taxes to the emperor, or not?" When the Pharisees asked Jesus that question, he responded with a request, "Show me the coin used for the tax," and someone handed Jesus a coin embossed with the head of the current Roman emperor, Tiberius. Engraved around his head was the inscription, "Tiberius Caesar, majestic son of the majestic God, and High Priest." "Whose image is on this coin?" Jesus asked. "The emperor's," they responded. "Well then," Jesus said, "give to the emperor what belongs to the emperor." The image of the emperor was embossed on the coin, therefore the coin belonged to him.
But in answering the Pharisees' question, Jesus didn't stop with the issue of taxation. He continued, "and give to God what belongs to God." As Jesus spoke the words, "give to God what belongs to God," standing right before him were those on whom the image of God had been embossed. The Pharisees, teachers of the law of Israel, children of Abraham whom God had claimed as his own, had been created from the very beginning in the image of God. In the image of himself, God had created them. They belonged to God. Those in whose eyes Jesus looked as he spoke were the coins of God. "Give to God what belongs to God," Jesus said. But when he spoke those words, the Pharisees left him and went away.
Should we pay taxes to the government? Yes, Jesus would say. But again, Jesus wouldn't stop there. Today he looks you in the eye and says, "Give to God what belongs to God." And as he looks at you, Jesus sees the image of God. In the beginning God created you and embossed his image upon you. In the waters of baptism, God marked you with the cross of Christ forever. God has given himself to you and has promised to love you and be with you forever.
Mrs. Detweiler was created in the image of God. She worked at Murray Elementary as the special education teacher. It didn't take her students long to recognize the image of God within her which made them feel special and loved. Even though she was a special education teacher, the students of Murray Elementary considered it a privilege to be invited to Mrs. Detweiler's room. The walls of her small classroom were covered with stars made out of bright yellow construction paper. Neatly written in black permanent marker on the star at the top of each row was the name of one of her students. As soon as a student finished reading a book, the title of that book was placed on another star that soon appeared directly beneath the star bearing the student's name. The more books a person read, the more stars accumulated under the name. Whenever her students finished a book, Mrs. Detweiler made them feel like stars, themselves. Her ability to make her students feel special and important was a mark of the image of God shining through her.
Mrs. Detweiler bore the image of God. She loved her students -- that was the image of God. She gave of herself by teaching them to read -- that was the image of God. She believed in her students -- that was the image of God. But even as one created in the image of God, Mrs. Detweiler would be the first to say that she had her faults. There were times when she let her students down; times when she lost her patience; times when her mood affected her ability to respond to her students enthusiastically. Mrs. Detweiler wasn't perfect, but she had been created in the image of God, claimed as God's child through her baptism and renewed each day with the gift of forgiveness. As she gave God what belonged to God by giving of herself to her students, Jesus worked through her. Through Mrs. Detweiler, God's love, acceptance and encouragement was shown to many students as they grew and matured into the people God had created them to be. As she gave God what belonged to God, God continued to give himself to her, revealing his love again and again through the sparkle in her students' eyes.
You are God's. His image has been placed within you. When I look at you, I see the image of God. I see the image of God in your faces as you greet one another before worship. I see the image of God each time you pray for each other and share one another's concerns. I see the image of God when I go to the nursing home and watch you hug and hold and gently speak with those who reside there. I see the image of God when I watch the Sunday school staff relate with the children -- so often God's love is given and received in the simple interactions they share. I see the image of God in the church kitchen, as members of this congregation work side by side to prepare a meal after a funeral or before a fellowship event. I see the image of God every time one of you gives to the Lord's work in a generous and cheerful way, sharing with others the blessings God has given you. God's image shines when you invite and welcome your neighbors to church -- not only those who are like you, but those who bring different perspectives and talents and needs to this body of Christ. I see God's image as this congregation reaches beyond itself to support missionaries and relieve world hunger. Whenever you give of yourself to others, the image of God within you is being revealed.
You are the bearers of God's image. Jesus said, "Give to God the things that are God's." You are God's. Jesus says, "Give yourself to God." But before you can even respond to Jesus' call to give yourself to God, God gives himself to you. Even before you have a chance to respond to Jesus' command, Jesus goes to the cross. Jesus goes to the cross to give to God what belongs to God. Jesus goes to the cross to give you to his Father in Heaven, who then blesses you with salvation and eternal life. Jesus goes to the cross for you and gives you life.
Give to God the things that are God's. When you give yourself to God, God will nurture his image within you. Jesus who now lives in you will give himself to others whenever you give of yourself to those in need. Jesus will use you to reveal God's love and forgiveness, to show all God's children how special they are to God, and to proclaim salvation to all who have been created in the image of God. Give to God things that are God's, remembering that Jesus has already given himself for you. Amen.
18. Sharing the Suffering
Illustration
J.D. Morris
Nowhere in the N.T. do any of the Greek words translated "fellowship" imply fun times. Rather, they talk of:
- The fellowship of the ministering to the saints(II Corinthians 8:4).
- Sacrificial service and financial aid(See for example, I Timothy 6:18).
- The fellowship in the gospel(Philippians 1:5),
- The defense and confirmation of the gospel, we all are partakers (same word as fellowship) of grace(Philippians 1:7).
- Bringingpersecution:We are to emulate Christ's humility and self-sacrificial love (Philippians 2:5-8).
- A fellowship of the Spirit(Phil 2:1).
- Knowing the fellowship of His sufferings, being made conformable unto His death(Philippians 3:10).
- Communion (i.e. fellowship) of the blood...and body of Christ(I Corinthians 10:16).
19. Fertile Soil
Illustration
Brett Blair
But there is a fourth kind of soil. There is the seed that falls upon the good earth and takes root and grows to maturity. This crop, we are told, is a harvest that will bear fruit a hundred fold. Jesus mentions this last because itis the thrust of the story. True, there are failures, but the good news is that there is also victory.
Now, here is the hard part. Our efforts in life are not always measurable. Sometimes, you may not see the final product. You may not see the actual harvest. Sometimes all we can do is plant a seed, and trust that God will do the rest. A school teacher works with a troubled child, but she may not know how the story ultimately turns out. All she can do is plant a seed of love and trust that God will do the rest. Sometimes just a word of encouragement to a person in need, or a shared personal thought and someone picks up on it and it gets them through a dark night.
Don't ever underestimate the power of a seed. Did you know that in 1959 there were 1 million Roman Catholics and 600,000 Protestants in China. That may sound like a lot, but when you compare it to a population that is rapidly approaching 1 billion people, you understand what a tiny seed that represented. Then in 1959 China closed it's doors to the outside world. Many people began to wrap a burial shroud around the Christian church in China. They said that it would never survive. Then in 1979 China again opened its doors to the West and to the rest of the world. And a strange thing had happened. That tiny seed 20 years earlier had taken root. The number of Roman Catholics during those dark years rose from 1 million to 3 million and the number of Protestants rose from 600,000 to 3 million. The church in a time of persecution and hardship, had grown 53% in a twenty year period. How do you explain it? Fertile soil! There was obviously a hunger for the gospel.
20. God's Evangelism Plans
Illustration
Richard A. Jensen
The fall of Haile Selassie in 1974 did not bring the kind of peace that the Ethiopians had hoped might follow their somewhat "benevolent" dictator. They had hoped for democracy. They had hoped for freedom. What they got, instead, was a Marxist state that ruled with an iron hand. Repression was everywhere. Persecution was everywhere. The Christian church became a target of this repression and persecution. The almost 20 years of Marxist rule was a very difficult time for the Christians of Ethiopia. During the waning years of this Marxist rule an Ethiopian pastor named Yadessa addressed an American audience concerning this persecution. He told of churches being closed and of many Christians and Christian leaders being put in prison. He said that there were hardly any churches left open in the western region of Ethiopia where evangelical Christianity had been very strong.
But closed church buildings did not close down the church. "Houses became churches," Pastor Yadessa told his audience. Christianity not only survived but thrived and grew under state repression. Pastor Yadessa reminded his audience that the most significant person to be imprisoned in those years was the president of the church himself, Pastor Gudina. Pastor Gudina was jailed and released several times but he eventually died in prison, Pastor Yadessa reported. He further reported that Pastor Gudina's wife was also imprisoned. "She has adjusted to prison life very well," Pastor Yadessa said. "She sews sweaters for people and distributes Bibles that are sent to her. She and many of the other imprisoned Christians have become great evangelists in the prisons. God has God's own evangelism plans," Pastor Yadessa proclaimed with a smile.
He told another story of God's evangelism planning. At the time of his address to his American audience Pastor Yadessa was the director of evangelism for the Ethiopian Evangelical Church -- Mekane Yesus. (Mekane Yesus means "the place of Jesus.") He planned that evangelism leaders from the Addis Ababa area and evangelism leaders from the land to the West that had been so heavily persecuted should meet in a city on the border of the two areas. "Just the logistics of planning the meeting," Pastor Yadessa said, "were extremely difficult. Communication between parties was almost impossible. But," he continued, "when the day for the meeting arrived, somehow, under God's providence, all of us arrived safely." The meeting, of course, was a bit subversive in light of the state's persecution of the church. The evangelism leaders gathered, therefore, in a simple home in the city. "We were just about to start our meeting," said Pastor Yadessa, "when seven uniformed policemen barged through the door of the house. 'This is an illegal meeting,' the head of the policemen shouted at us. 'You are all under arrest. Come with us at once.' It wasn't long until all of us werelocked together in prison." As Pastor Yadessa told the story he indicated that the first hour or two that the leaders were in the jail were moments of great despair. "But then," he said brightening, "we realized that God had given us a great opportunity. Here we were all together in one place with nothing to do but pray together and talk together and think about evangelism together. We found ourselves on a wonderfully unplanned evangelism retreat. God, indeed, has God's own evangelism plans that surprise and surpass our own!""
21. FARMER
Illustration
Stephen Stewart
Jeremiah 14:4 - "Because of the ground which is dismayed, since there is no rain in the land, the farmers are ashamed, they cover their heads."
2 Timothy 2:6 - "It is the hard-working farmer who ought to have the first share of the crops."
James 5:7 - "Be patient, therefore, brethren, until the coming of the Lord. Behold, the farmer waits for the precious fruit of the earth, being patient over it until it receives the early and the late rain."
Palestine was one of the world’s earliest agricultural centers. By 7500 B.C., the land was irrigated, and farming was good. The Israelites learned to farm from the Canaanites, and they built their villages near their fields where they worked all day. In later times, these villages grew into walled towns. Much of the farming was done on hillsides, and as a result, terracing came into practice quite early.
Among the chief crops in ancient Palestine were wheat, rice, barley, oats, rye, beans, peas, lettuce, celery, cabbage, beets, turnips, mustard, radishes, onions, flax, cotton, and many others. But it wasn’t easy. The land was rocky and the farmer was often threatened by such things as ants, caterpillars, field mice, tares, wind, hail, and so on. Fallowing, which means to plow, but not plant, was practiced every seven years to enrich the soil, control weeds, and furnish food for the poor, since whatever grew of itself was given to them.
The farm season opened in November after the early October rains, and the Gezer Calendar marks the program of a Palestinian farmer in this way:
"his two months are (olive) harvest;
his two months are grain-planting;
his two months are planting;
his month is hoeing up of flax;
his month is barley harvest;
his month is harvest and festivity;
his two months are vine-tending;
his month is summer-fruit."
The farmer’s plow was a forked branch with an attached piece of sharp metal. During the time of Saul, the Philistines monopolized iron, and Hebrew farmers were forced to go to the Philistines to have their plows sharpened. A plank or a fa*ggot of thorns served as a harrow.
Planting was done simply by broadcasting it or by a kind of funnel fixed to the plow, called a seed-pipe. Harvesting was accomplished by grasping a small tuft of grain in the left hand and cutting it with a sickle held in the right hand. The short-handed sickle was made with flint until about 1100 B.C. when iron became common.
Sheaves were bound into bundles and taken to the threshing floor. There the farmer beat the ripe grain with a staff or rod. Threshing floors were usually situated outside the village. Using pitchforks, the farmer winnowed the grain by tossing it into the wind. The grain was then sifted through screen trays, stored, and transported to market.
The dry season, extending from mid-May until mid-October, gave the farmer some of his greatest problems. This lack of water explains the many cisterns found in Palestine. Many regulations and customs pertain to agriculture:
1. It was forbidden to move boundaries.
2. It was forbidden to mix different kinds of seed.
3. It was forbidden to yoke animals of different species together.
4. Permission to glean fields was given to the poor.
5. The sides of a field were uncut to benefit the poor.
6. It was forbidden to turn back for a forgotten sheaf.
7. Passers-by were authorized to pluck ears.
Land was measured by the yoke - that is, the area that a pair of oxen could plough in a day. The value of the land was fixed according to whatever was planted in it. Now, of course, I don’t have to spell out the comparable occupation today. Although the methods have certainly changed, the occupation hasn’t, and it is still as vital a one as it has ever been.
22. Risky Retirement
Illustration
Retirement may increase a man's risk of dying of heart attack. "We found an 80 percent higher rate of death from coronary disease among those in a study who had retired compared with those who had not," said Dr. Charles H. Hennekens of Harvard Medical School. It may be that some people who retire get all nervous about it and kind of tense," said Hennekens. "That may be a way of explaining this, but I just don't know."
Hennekens said he and his colleagues were trying to set up a long-term study of up to 10,000 elderly persons to determine their physical and mental responses to retirement. Among the variables not included in the current data, he said, were length of retirement, changes in lifestyle and attitudes toward retirement. The last may be very important, he said, since "for some people, retirement is a reward for a lifetime's work and they look forward to it. But for other people, it is a punishment for growing old. Those who feel that way perhaps might be the ones who get nervous, but we don't have that breakdown."
Each victim was matched with another man of similar age living in the same neighborhood. Of the 568 pairs of victims and controls, 102 included one retiree and one person still at work. Of those, Hennekens said, 76 of the dead men were retirees, while only 26 of the living men had retired. After adjusting the information for age differences and other variables, he said, "there was still this 80 percent association." He said the tentative findings applied only to men in whom coronary disease is much more common than in women. By age 60, one in five American men will have had a coronary problem, while the figure for women is about one in 17.
23. Paid In Full
Illustration
Michael P. Green
The story istold of a man who was caught and taken to court because he had stolen a loaf of bread. When the judge investigated, he found out that the man had no job, and his family was hungry. He had tried unsuccessfully to get work and finally, to feed his family, he had stolen a loaf of bread. Although recognizing the extenuating circ*mstances, the judge said, “I’m sorry, but the law can make no exceptions. You stole, and therefore I have to punish you. I order you to pay a fine of ten dollars.” He then continued, “But I want to pay the fine myself.” He reached into his pocket, pulled out a ten-dollar bill, and handed it to the man.
As soon as the man took the money, the judge said, “Now I also want to remit the fine.” That is, the man could keep the money. “Furthermore, I am going to instruct the bailiff to pass around a hat to everyone in this courtroom, and I am fining everyone in this courtroom fifty cents for living in a city where a man has to steal in order to have bread to eat.” The money was collected and given to the defendant.
This is an excellent example of justice being meted out in full and paid in full—while mercy and grace were also enacted in full measure.
24. The Gospel on Trial
Illustration
Larry Powell
Let us beginby abruptly relating three contemporary examples:
1. In late March of 1981, a mother drove her son John to an airport in Denver, put him out, and told him not to come home again. He didn’t. A few days after being dropped off at the airport, John Hinckley shot and wounded President Ronald Reagan, presidential press secretary James Brady, Secret Service agent Timothy McCarthy, and D.C. police officer Thomas Delahanty. A grim reminder that we inhabit a violent society.
2. Israel, the same family of earth from which emerged Jesus of Nazareth 2,000 years ago, today is the largest supplier of weapons to at least three countries in Central America. We live in a world of contradictions.
3. A recent ad in the New York Times invited persons to purchase a high-rise on Manhattan’s swank east side, and drive away in a free 1983 Rolls-Royce Silver Spirit. Apartments range from $583,000 to $1.2 million, but the automobile is free. Meanwhile, unemployment cripples thousands of our fellow citizens, and people stand in line to receive surplus cheese. Our society extends from the irresponsibly affluent to the painfully poor.
Change the examples above, but retain the italicized phrases, and see how similar our world is to that of Paul’s. The gospel was on trial then; it is on trial today. Has there been a time when it has not been on trial?
Both the Gospel and Paul were on trial in Jerusalem. But then again, as we have seen in Paul’s letters, the apostle had actually been on trial in Macedonia, Thessalonica, Beroea, Athens, Corinth, and Ephesus. Oh, he was not dragged into court in those places, but he was on trial all right. And now he had come to Jerusalem, bearing an offering collected from the Gentile churches. He had been warned not to enter the city (21:10-14), but he still came. Soon, he stood before Ananias, the Sadducees, and Pharisees ... on trial again. Whether intentional or incidental, Paul managed to accomplish a ruse which worked to his advantage. He reminded the assembly that he was a Pharisee and that he had been brought before them with respect to the resurrection. The Sadducees did not believe in a resurrection, angels, or spirits; the Pharisees did. Shortly, they were so busy arguing among themselves that they forgot the real issue and Paul was dismissed.
Can you think of instances where Christians have been so busily engaged with arguing among ourselves that we have forgotten the real issue or reason for our existence?
25. A Word of Caution to Champion Weed Pullers
Illustration
Richard Patt
I'll never forget the day I became a champion weed-puller. It was a little embarrassing. About thirty summers ago I was a young boy of eight or nine, living with my family on a farm in rural Wisconsin, not far from Milwaukee. My older brothers used to spend a good deal of June and July helping the neighboring truck farmers weed their gardens. I don't know how they do it today, but then it was a matter of doing everything by hand. You got down onthe ground and pulled the weeds one by one. The pay was about a dime for a row of radishes a hundred feet long.
One day I thought I would get in on this money making venture, so I too presented myself to the neighboring truck farmer, who agreed to pay me a dime for each row of radishes I would weed. He quickly inquired whether I knew what a radish plant looked like. I quickly replied that I did, not wanting to be turned down for the job. So I went to work, and about an hour later, I stood before the farmer, expecting a shiny silver dime. But sure enough, I had picked all the tender young radish shoots and left the ignoble weeds standing there gloriously in the sunshine. Clearly it would have been better for this farmer and his radishes if I had never pulled his so-called "weeds" at all. A champion weed-puller indeed!
26. The Honorable Title of Parent
Illustration
Steven V. Roberts
Americans are so shaped and stamped by their legacy of individualism that the concepts of community virtue and moral obligation have been discredited In our popular culture, adulthood is too often defined as doing what you want to do, not what you are supposed to do. Making a baby is a sign of status, while caring for one is not. Right and wrong are old-fashioned, politically incorrect concepts. And sin? Forget it. The problem doesn't end with ghetto kids getting pregnant and going on welfare. Half of all Americans who marry and have children eventually divorce. For many, marriage is more like a hobby than a commitment, a phase instead of a trust. We are becoming a country of deadbeat dads who don't pay their bills and dead-tired moms who work two jobs to pick up the slack. Even many parents who pay for their children don't pay attention to their children. In so doing, they miss out on some of life's greatest joys: hearing a small giggle or holding a small hand. As Surgeon General Joycelyn Elders once noted, it is easier for many children to find drugs "than it is for them to find hugs." Probably the best thing that society can do for its toddlers is to make "parent" an honorable title again. No job is more important, yet no job is more often taken for granted. We teach work skills but not life skills, how to change a carburetor but not a diaper, how to treat a customer but not a kid. Becoming a parent should be the result of love, not just sex; a sign of a lasting relationship, not just a passing infatuation; a source of pride, and not remorse. Only then will our children be safe.
27. 101 Ways to Spend Your Time
Illustration
Tim Kimmel
Becoming good at the things that build inner confidence and calm takes practice and a dash of creativity! The following list might provide some cloudseeding for a brainstorm or two of your own:
- Pay off your credit cards.
- Take off ten pounds or accept where you are without any more complaints.
- Eat dinner together as a family for seven days in a row.
- Take your wife on a dialogue date (no movie, guys).
- Read your kids a classic book (Twain's a good start).
- Memorize the Twenty-third Psalm as a family.
- Give each family member a hug for twenty-one days in a row (that's how long the experts say it takes to develop a habit).
- Pick a night of the week in which the television will remain unplugged.
- Go out for a non-fast food dinner as a family.
- Pray for your spouse and children every day.
- Plan a vacation together.
- Take a vacation together.
- Read a chapter from the Bible every day until it becomes a habit.
- Sit together as a family in church.
- Surprise your teenager. Wash his car and fill up his gas tank.
- Take an afternoon off from work; surprise your child by excusing him from school and taking him to a ball game.
- Take a few hours one afternoon and go to the library as a family.
- Take a walk as a family.
- Write each member of your family a letter sharing why you value them.
- Give your spouse a weekend getaway with a friend (same gender!) to a place of their choice.
- Go camping as a family.
- Go to bed early (one hour before your normal bedtime) every day for a week.
- Take each of your children out to breakfast (individually) at least once a month for a year.
- Turn down a promotion that would demand more time from your family than you can afford to give.
- Religiously wear your seat belts.
- Get a complete physical.
- Exercise a little every day for a month.
- Make sure you have adequate life insurance on both you and your spouse.
- Write out information about finances, wills, and important business information that your spouse can use to keep things under control in the event of your death.
- Make sure your family car is safe (tires, brakes, etc.) and get it tuned up.
- Replace the batteries in your smoke alarm.
- Put a security system in your house.
- Attend the parent/teacher meetings of each child as a couple.
- Help your kids with their homework.
- Watch the kids on Saturday while your wife goes shopping (but if a friend calls, don't say that you're "babysitting").
- Explain to your spouse exactly what you do for a living.
- Put together a picture puzzle. (One thousand pieces or more.)
- Take time during the week to read a Bible story to your children and then discuss it with them.
- Encourage each child to submit to you his most perplexing question, and promise him that you'll either answer it or discuss it with him.
- Finish fixing something around the house.
- Tell your kids how you and your spouse met.
- Tell your kids about your first date.
- Sit down and write your parents a letter thanking them for a specific thing they did for you. (Don't forget to send it!)
- Go on a shopping spree where you are absolutely committed to buying nothing.
- Keep a prayer journal for a month. Keep track of the specific ways that God answers your needs.
- Do some stargazing away from the city with your family. Help your children identify constellations and conclude the evening with prayer to the majestic God who created the heavens.
- Treat your wife to a beauty make-over (facial, manicure, haircut, etc.). I hear they really like this.
- Give the kids an alternative to watching Saturday morning cartoons (breakfast at McDonald's, garage sales, the park, chores, etc.).
- Ask your children each day what they did at school (what they learned, who they ate lunch with, etc.).
- After you make your next major family decision, take your child back through the process and teach him how you arrived at your decision.
- Start saying to yourself "My car doesn't look so bad."
- Call you wife or husband from work just to see how they're doing.
- Compile a family tree and teach your children the history of their ancestors.
- Walk through an old graveyard with your children.
- Say no to at least one thing a day even if it's only a second piece of pie.
- Write that letter to the network that broadcast the show you felt was inappropriate for prime-time viewing.
- Turn off the lights and listen to a "praise" tape as you focus your thoughts on the Lord.
- Write a note to your pastor praising him for something.
- Take back all the books in your library that actually belong in someone else's library.
- Give irritating drivers the right to pull in front of you without signaling and yelling at them.
- Make every effort to not let the sun go down on your anger.
- Accept legitimate criticism from your wife or a friend without reacting or defending yourself.
- If your car has a Christian bumper sticker on in drive like it.
- Do a Bible study on the "wise man" and the "fool" in Proverbs...and then apply what it takes to be wise to your life.
- Make a list of people who have hurt your feelings over the past year...then check your list to see if you've forgiven them.
- Make a decision to honor your parents, even if they made a career out of dishonoring you.
- Take your children to the dentist and doctor for your wife.
- Play charades with your family, but limit subjects to memories of the past.
- Do the dishes for your wife.
- Schedule yourself a free day to stay home with your family.
- Get involved in a family project that serves or helps someone less fortunate.
- As a family, get involved in a recreational activity.
- Send your wife flowers.
- Spend an evening going through old pictures from family vacations.
- Take a weekend once a year for you and your spouse to get away and renew your friendship.
- Praise your spouse and children in their presence to someone else.
- Discuss a world or national problem, and ask your children for their opinion on it.
- Wait up for your teenagers when they are out on dates.
- Have a "quiet Saturday" (no television, no radio, no stereo...no kidding).
- If your children are little, spend an hour playing with them but let them determine the game.
- Have your parents tell your children about life when they were young.
- Give up soap operas.
- De-clutter your house.
- If you have a habit of watching late night television, but have to be to work early every morning, change your habit.
- Don't accept unnecessary breakfast appointments.
- Write missionaries regularly.
- Go through your closets and give everything that you haven't worn in a year to a clothing relief organization.
- Become a faithful and frequent visitor of your church's library.
- Become a monthly supporter of a Third World child.
- Keep mementos, school projects, awards, etc. of each child in separate files. You'll appreciate these when they've left the nest.
- Read the biography of a missionary.
- Give regularly and faithfully to conscientious church endeavors.
- Place with your will a letter to each family member telling why you were glad you got to share life with him or her.
- Go through your old records and tapes and discard any of them that might be a bad testimony to your children.
- Furnish a room (or a corner of a room) with comfortable chairs and declare it the "disagreement corner." When conflicts arise, go to this corner and don't leave until it's resolved.
- Give each child the freedom to pick his favorite dinner menu at least once a week.
- Go over to a shut-in's house as a family and completely clean it and get the lawn work done.
- Call an old friend from your past, just to see how he or she is getting along.
- Get a good friend to hold you accountable for a specific important need (Bible reading, prayer, spending time with your family, losing a few pounds, etc.).
- Establish a budget.
- Go to a Christian marriage enrichment seminar.
28. I Choose You
Illustration
Victoria Brooks
There's an old, word-of-mouth story, which is probably aprochryphal, about Abraham Lincoln visitinga slave auction. Observing the proceedings from the rear of the crowd, his attention was caught by a strong, defiant, young slave girl with sharp, angry eyes.
Something in her manner pierced him; the sheer intensity of her gaze spoke to him of the anguish of her captivity and her longing for freedom. When it was her turn to step to the auction block, he and several others bid. With each rise in price, her hostility grew. Finally, Lincoln won, paid the money, and had her brought to him.
She came, rigid with resistance, arms tied behind her back, leg chains dragging.
“Untie her,” Lincoln said.
“Oh no, sir!” her auctioneer responded, pulling her forward with a jerk. “She be a wild one! Ain’t no end o’ trouble in her. Ya best git her home afore ya be takin’ her chains off.” With that, he secured her to the horse rail, turned, and left.
Lincoln stood quietly for a moment, looking at the young woman. “What is your name?” he asked.
She did not respond.
“What are you called?” he repeated.
Steeling herself for the inevitable blow, she set her jaw, stared at the ground, and said nothing.
Taking the bill of sale from his pocket, Lincoln read it carefully, then marked the bottom with his signature. Slowly he stooped, undid the clasp of her ankle irons, and untied the rope that had cut into her wrists.
“You’re free to go, Sara-Jane,” he said, handing her the document. “You are free to choose your own life now.”
Reaching again into his pocket, he drew out a card and several coins. “If you have any trouble,” he said, “call on me at this address and I will help you.”
As the reality of what she had heard seeped slowly through her brain and into her muscles, the young woman grew weak and unable to sustain her rage. Minutes ticked by as anger gave way to confusion, and confusion to disbelief. Like someone in the grip of a personal earthquake, shockwaves of agonizing hope rippled through the muscles of her face. As she fought for control, her jaw clenched, then settled again; her muscular shoulders convulsed, then were still. Finally, a large, work-callused hand rose to take the papers and the money. Instantly, she turned and ran.
Lincoln watched as she disappeared down the rutted road.
Taking the reins of his horse, he began to mount when he saw her suddenly stop. Some distance away, she stood totally still. More minutes passed. Then, slowly, deliberately, she made her way back. Standing in front of him, she handed him the money.
“I choose you,” she said, looking up for the first time into Lincoln’s gaunt, craggy face. “You say I choose my own life now,” she continued haltingly, “ ... that I work for who I want. You give me papers to show that I be free.” The deep sinkholes of her oval face were wet with emotion. “If that be true . . . if I be free . . . then I choose you.”
29. Practice Makes Perfect
Illustration
Brett Blair & John Troup
Have you ever worked to get better at something? If so, you soon realized that the cliche "practice makes perfect" is true. Olympic Athletes seem to succeed with effortless grace, but their performances aren't as easy as they look. The average Olympian trains four hours a day at least 310 days a year for six years before succeeding. Getting better begins with working out every day. By 7:a.m. most athletes have done more than many people do all day. How well an athlete performs is often attributed to mental toughness. But performance really depends on physical capacity to do work. That capacity is based on two factors: genetic talent and the quality of the training program. Good training makes up for some limitations, but most of us will never be Olympians no matter how hard we work. We haven't inherited the right genetic combination of endurance, potential, speed and muscle. But given equal talent, the better-trained athlete can generally outperform the one who did not give a serious effort, and who is less confident at the starting block.
Years before theOlympics, Michael Phelpshasput in thousands of laps. Shaun White practiced his flips over and over, daily, for years. Even Usain Bolt who makes running look so easy and could beat most runners, runnin at 70% of his capacity...listen to his regimen:six days a week of weight training, sprints, footwork training,flexibility exercises,box jumps, frog leaps, high knee skips, ankle rolls, and step ups.
Training works, but it isn't easy or simple. Swimmers train an average of 10 miles a day, at speeds of 5 mph in the pool. That might not sound fast, but their heart rates average 160 the entire time. Try running up a flight of stairs, then check your heart rate. Then imagine having to do that for four hours! Marathon runners average 160 miles a week at 10 mph. Two important training principles must be followed: Progressively increase the amount and intensity of the work. Train specifically. Weightlifters don't run sprints, and basketball players don't swim.
30. Just Ask For It
Illustration
During the Spanish-American War, Clara Barton was overseeing the work of the Red Cross in Cuba. One day Colonel Theodore Roosevelt came to her, wanted to buy food for his sick and wounded Rough Riders. But she refused to sell him any. Roosevelt was perplexed. His men needed the help and he was prepared to pay out of his own funds. When he asked someone why he could not buy the supplies, he was told, "Colonel, just ask for it!" A smile broke over Roosevelt's face. Now he understood the provisions were not for sale. All he had to do was simply ask and they would be given freely.
31. Run the Right Race
Illustration
D. Bruce Lockerbie
A world-class woman runner was invited to compete in a road race in Connecticut. On the morning of the race, she drove from New York City, following the directions or so she thought given her over the telephone. She got lost, stopped at a gas station, and asked for help. She knew that the race started in the parking lot of a shopping mall. The station attendant also knew of such a race scheduled just up the road and directed her there.
When she arrived she was relieved to see in the parking lot a modest number of runners preparing to compete. Not as many as she'd anticipated; an easier race than she'd been led to expect. She hurried to the registration desk, announced herself, and was surprised by the race officials' excitement at having so renowned an athlete show up for their race. No, they had no record of her entry, but if she'd hurry and put on this number, she could just make it before the gun goes off. She ran and, naturally, she won easily, some four minutes ahead of the first male runner in second place.
Only after the race when there was no envelope containing her sizable prize and performance money did she confirm that the event she'd run was not the race to which she'd been invited. That race was being held several miles farther up the road in another town. She'd gone to the wrong starting line, run the wrong course, and missed her chance to win a valuable prize.
32. Secret Santa
Illustration
King Duncan
In Kansas City, there is a tradition simply known as the "Secret Santa." Every Christmas, this "Secret Santa" seeks out people who are down and out, and he quietly slips them an envelope with a crisp, brand new $100 bill slipped inside. The recipients are usually astonished at this unmerited act of generosity.
A few years ago, someone tracked down this "Secret Santa" and asked him, "Why do you do this?" The man replied how life had blessed him with an extremely successful business venture. But this was not always the case. In 1971 he was an out-of-work salesman who was reduced to living out of his car. One morning he had not eaten for two days. He was incredibly hungry, so hungry that he walked into a diner in Houston, Mississippi to order breakfast with no intent of paying for it. He couldn't! He had no money, but he was so hungry.
As he hungrily ate his breakfast, he wondered how he was going to pay for this meal, or how he was going to get out of paying for this meal. When the check came, he fumbled around in his pockets pretending to have lost his wallet. The owner of the diner had already sized him up and knew he didn't have the money.
The owner came around the counter, approached the man, and bent down as if to pickup something. The owner said to the man, "Well, looks like you dropped this $20 bill." Now the man had enough to pay for breakfast and a little more to keep for the road. He never forgot this totally undeserved act of generosity and goodness. He now gives to others as someone once gave to him.
This Advent season we need to reflect on the entire Christ event. Christ came into the world to save us from the power of sin. The Messiah is coming. Repent and be baptized. Then you will surely see God's salvation.
33. TAX COLLECTOR
Illustration
Stephen Stewart
Modern taxes are a recent development, but the practice of taxation is an ancient one. The comment, "There is nothing more sure than death and taxes" has won sympathetic agreement down through the ages.
Now, certainly, any thinking person will agree that taxes are a necessity of governmental life, but we seldom approve of the methods for collecting such taxes. We are always sure that there just has to be a better way! And this has been the attitude throughout recorded history. Away back at the time of the division of the kingdom, Adoniram, a tax collector for King Rehoboam, was stoned to death for his activities!
We have mention throughout all of the Bible of the taxes imposed on the people, either by God or by conquering nations, but the title of "tax collector" seems to be a strictly New Testament term. The problem goes back to the Ptolemaic rule over Palestine, after the death of Alexander the Great. Under Ptolemy, the taxation of each city was leased to the highest bidder and that sum was then to be paid to the royal Treasury. If his collection fell below the required sum, the tax collector had to make up the difference. Any amount that he collected above this required sum he was allowed to keep. Although the tax collectors generally had a better than average education, since they had to know how to read, write, and figure sums, they also had to be men who were not above using cunning or violence to collect the taxes.
Many persons tried to cheat them, and used many ingenious ways of doing so, so the tax collector had to be just a little bit smarter, to keep ahead of them. And, if cunning didn’t work, a show of violence could be counted on to do the trick. One tax collector beheaded twenty persons when they refused to pay their taxes, and then confiscated their possessions!
In New Testament times, Roman officials were directly responsible for the collection of regular taxes, such as poll and land taxes. There were many other taxes, however, which were farmed out to private contractors for a period of five years. Usually, these contractors were Romans, but, occasionally, they were Jews.
Tax collectors as a class have never enjoyed a great popularity, but those who operated in early New Testament times were particularly despised. You see, even though the Jews had a long history of domination by others, and, at some periods, had even accepted this domination and had risen to eminence within a captive state, this was never the feeling that they had toward the Romans. It’s true that many Jews recognized the many benefits that they derived from the Roman system, but still their captors were harsh, cruel people, and were held in hatred and fear. So, any Jew who had sold out to the Romans was doubly hated, as an apostate and a traitor, taking away from his own people to give to the hated Romans! The rabbis regarded tax collectors as the same as robbers and refused to allow them to be judges or even to give witness.
We know, of course, that Matthew was a tax collector, and that Jesus often dined at the homes of these men, a fact which the Pharisees played up to full advantage. Zacchaeus was a tax collector who saw the error of his ways and offered to restore by fourfold his deceitful gains and to donate half of his capital to charity!
Although we often grumble about the taxes we have to pay, especially in April of every year, I’m sure we are all aware of the necessity of the taxation procedure to keep the wheels of our governments running smoothly. Today’s tax men, who work for the Internal Revenue Service, are educated, trained men, who are not to be anathematized, even when we might be disgruntled. Rather, they are an important part of our economic picture, and as such we owe them thanks for keeping our country in a state of relative solvency.
34. Pulling Weeds - Sermon Starter
Illustration
King Duncan
Last week we talked about planting seeds. This week we're talking about pulling weeds. The two go together. Every gardener knows that planting seeds is the easy part of having a successful garden. It is much more time consuming to weed that same garden. And it's hard work. As someone has said: "When weeding, the best way to make sure you are removing a weed and not a valuable plant is to pull on it. If it comes out of the ground easily, it is a valuable plant."
There is a corollary to that truth: "To distinguish flowers from weeds, simply pull up everything. What grows back is weeds."
Some of you can relate to one unknown homemaker who wrote: I don't do windows because . . . I love birds and don't want one to run into a clean window and get hurt. I don't wax floors because . . . I am terrified a guest will slip and get hurt then I'll feel terrible (plus they may sue me.)I don't disturb cobwebs because . . . I want every creature to have a home of their own. I don't Spring Clean because . . . I love all the seasons and don't want the others to get jealous. I don't put things away because . . . my husband will never be able to find them again. I don't do gourmet meals when I entertain because . . . I don't want my guests to stress out over what to make when they invite me over for dinner. I don't iron because . . . I choose to believe them when they say "Permanent Press." And finally: I don't pull weeds in the garden because . . . I don't want to get in God's way, He is an excellent designer!
I doubt than anyone likes pulling weeds, including God. In today's lesson Jesus tells a parable. "The kingdom of heaven is like a man who sowed good seed in his field. But while everyone was sleeping, his enemy came and sowed weeds among the wheat, and went away. When the wheat sprouted and formed heads, then the weeds also appeared.
"The owner's servants came to him and said, ‘Sir, didn't you sow good seed in your field? Where then did the weeds come from?'
"‘An enemy did this,' he replied.
"The servants asked him, ‘Do you want us to go and pull them up?'
"‘No,' he answered, ‘because while you are pulling the weeds, you may root up the wheat with them. Let both grow together until the harvest. At that time I will tell the harvesters: First collect the weeds and tie them in bundles to be burned; then gather the wheat and bring it into my barn.'"
Then Jesus left the crowd and went into the house. His disciples came to him and said, "Explain to us the parable of the weeds in the field."
Jesus answered, "The one who sowed the good seed is the Son of Man. The field is the world, and the good seed stands for the sons of the kingdom. The weeds are the sons of the evil one, and the enemy who sows them is the devil. The harvest is the end of the age, and the harvesters are angels.
"As the weeds are pulled up and burned in the fire, so it will be at the end of the age. The Son of Man will send out his angels, and they will weed out of his kingdom everything that causes sin and all who do evil. They will throw them into the fiery furnace, where there will be weeping and gnashing of teeth. Then the righteous will shine like the sun in the kingdom of their Father. He who has ears, let him hear."
On its surface, there is not much to be said about this parable except make sure you're not a weed…
1. Pulling Weeds Is an Important Part of a Successful Life.
2. God Is Our Savior.
3. God Wants to Save Us from Sin.
35. Our Roots
Illustration
John M. Braaten
Ever since Alex Haley’s novel, Roots, hit the bookstands in the mid-70s, there has been an increasing number of people interested in their heritage. Many people buy computers and get on the internet primarily to keep track of their family tree.
Parish secretaries are often called upon to do research for people investigating their family heritage. It is clear that many persons have been motivated to search through history in an attempt to find their roots. As one newspaper columnist wrote, "The once fabled rootless Americans are realizing that the people who formed the foundations of their heritage are important. And more than that, they are enjoying their quest, for there is satisfaction and security in finding one’s roots."
Finding our roots, unveiling the people of our past, is a process that helps us discover who we are by looking at where we came from. But it’s only the beginning. Even more telling is the question of where we have set our roots for daily life. What motivates our day-to-day existence? Or I could put the question to you in this way, "What’s the biggest thing in your life?" What’s most important to you?
Some might answer, "My home and family, everything revolves around them." Or someone else, "My country, first, last and always." Some might even say, "My work, my work means everything to me; without that, I’d be lost." Others might answer, "My youth. The important thing in my life right now is the fact that I’m young." Many would simply reply, "Health and happiness." Don’t we say, "If you’ve got your health, you’ve got just about everything?" And we all want to be happy.
These are certainly important facts of life, the foliage which enhances our daily living. Then we must ask, "What if these things go?" What happens when your home, your family is crushed by news of a fatal illness or shattered by the death of a loved one? What if you lose your job? Or if your income no longer pays the bills? What if you wake up one day and realize that you’re not just getting older but that you’re getting old!" For our youth goes, too. The springtime of life so quickly turns to autumn, and then to winter.
In a society that idolizes youth, it’s tough to accept the fact that our youth is literally wasting away.
Health and happiness? There may be some people in church this morning whose health is gone; it may never come back. Perhaps some of you are worshiping today because you are looking for healing, or your burden is too heavy to bear alone so you have come looking for a word of encouragement. For others, an increasing number of problems have cast a pall over your life, and you wish that someone would listen to you and try to understand. You are not very happy and you’re not so sure you ever will be again. Life is so uncertain.
In his book, Man’s Search for Meaning, Dr. Victor Frankl, a Jewish psychiatrist, tells how he survived three unimaginably grim years in Nazi concentration camps. His wife, his brother, his mother and father, all were killed in similar camps. He, himself, was stripped of all his possessions, all his clothing, his watch, his rings, even his glasses. Then they shaved all the hair off his body and he was utterly naked. Now, you see, the question he had to face was, "Does my life have meaning now?" Family gone; all possessions gone; position in the community, gone; all dignity, gone; possession only what he called, "My ridiculously naked life." Now does my being have roots? Is there any reason to continue living?
36. Stay Focused!
Illustration
Eric Ritz
We sometimes miss the great opportunities of life because we get sidetracked. I once heard the tale of a talented and gifted bloodhound in England that started a hunt by chasing a full-grown male deer. During the chase a fox crossed his path, so he began now to chase the fox. A rabbit crossed his hunting path, so he began to chase the rabbit. After chasing the rabbit for a while, a tiny field mouse crossed his path, and he chased the mouse to the corner of a farmer's barn. The bloodhound had begun the hunt chasing a prized male deer for his master and wound up barking at a tiny mouse. It is a rare human being who can do three or four different things at a time moving in different directions.
The Apostle Paul knew his number one priority in life was to live his life to the honor and glory of God by preaching the Gospel. However, we know that Paul is not in a plush hotel room but in prison. He receives a report that all is not well at the Church in Philippi. His very life could be ended at any moment. And the list goes on. However, the Apostle Paul would not allow anything to cross his path that would deter him from his priority. Paul knew that his new life was a gift from God, not from the promises of humanity. His life was to be lived for his master. Nothing would sidetrack him of that priority!
37. Selling Yourself As A Slave
Illustration
Michael P. Green
Well before Paul was born, there had been a Roman law stating that no freeborn man could be enslaved. Therefore, a man could literally sell himself into slavery, collect the proceeds, then have a friend come and attest to his status as a freeborn man, and he would have to be released at once. This caused havoc with the Roman economy, which was well oiled by its slave labor. Therefore, just before Paul’s day, a new law was enacted whereby any man who sold himself into slavery could no longer claim free status later. The law could no longer help him. It was therefore clear to Paul’s readers in Rome that “to whom you present yourselves as slaves for obedience, his slave you are.”
38. In the Know
Illustration
Michael Horton
One of the earliest and most potent threats to early Christianity came from the heretical group known as the Gnostics. Blending elements of Christianity, Greek philosophy, and oriental mysticism, the Gnostics denied the orthodox view of God, man, and the world, and Christ. The apostle John included them in the camp of the Antichrist.
The Gnostics were so called because of their view of revelation. The word gnosis is the Greek word for "knowledge." In many cases the Gnostic heretics did not make a frontal assault against the apostles or against the apostolic teaching of Scripture. In fact, many of them insisted that they were genuine, Bible-believing Christians. It wasn't that they rejected the Bible; they just claimed an additional source of knowledge or insight that was superior to or at least beyond the knowledge of Scripture. The "Gnostikoi" were "those in the know." Their knowledge was not derived from intellectual comprehension of the Scripture or by empirical research, but was mystical, direct, and immediate. God "revealed" private, intuitive insights to them that carried nothing less than divine authority.
Here is a typical Gnostic statement: "We cannot communicate with God mentally, for He is a Spirit. But we can reach Him with our Spirit, and it is through our Spirit that we come to know God….This is one reason God put teachers (those who are really called to teach) in the church to renew our minds. Many times those who teach do so with only a natural knowledge that they have gained from the Bible and other sources. But I am referring here to one of the ministry gifts. Those who are called and anointed by the Spirit to teach. God has given us His Word, and we can feed upon that Word. This will renew our minds. But He also puts teachers in the church to renew our minds and to bring us the revelation of the knowledge of God's Word." (Kenneth E. Hagin, Man on Three Dimensions (Tulsa, Okla.: Faith Library, 1985), 1:8,13.)
Notice that this quotation does not include a direct assault on the Bible. The Bible is recognized as God's word. But in order to understand the Bible we need something beyond our natural mental ability. We need the Spirit-anointed teachers to "bring us the revelation of the knowledge of God's Word." This is a typically Gnostic statement, but the quote is not from Valentinus or any of the other early Gnostics. It is from the pen of a modern missionary of Gnosticism, Kenneth E. Hagin. It is from Hagin's Man on Three Dimensions. Hagin's theology echoes the tripartite epistemology of early Gnosticism (man as having three separate entities: body, soul, and spirit).
Robert Tilton also claims a direct pipeline to divine revelation: "God showed me a vision that almost took my breath away. I was sucked into the Spirit . . ., caught away . . . and I found myself standing in the very presence of Almighty God. It just echoed into my being. And he said these words to me. . . exactly these words . . ."Many of my ministers pray for my people, but I want you to pray the Prayer of Agreement with them" . . . I have never seen the presence of God so powerful. This same anointing flooded my Spirit-man . . . It's inside of me now, and I have supernatural faith to agree with you. From that day forth, as I have been faithful to that heavenly vision, I've seen every kind of miracle imaginable happen when I pray the Prayer of Agreement with God's people." (Robert Tilton, newsletter from Robert Tilton Ministries, Word of Faith World Outreach Center, Box 819000, Dallas, TX75381.
It seems that in Robert Tilton the church is blessed with a twentieth-century apostle whose visions of revelation exceed that of the apostle John and whose miracle powers surpass that of the apostle Paul. If we are to believe Tilton's astonishing claims, there is no reason we should not include his writings in the next edition of the New Testament.
Paul Crouch of the Trinity Broadcasting Network (TBN), has revelatory dreams and has warmly embraced the neo-Gnostic dogma. His network has become a prime distribution center for the growing movement. Kenneth Copeland also receives phrases from God in "his spirit."
39. The 300th American
Illustration
In 2006 America welcomed her 300 millionth citizen. To put this in perspective, we hit the 100 million citizen mark around 1915. Current estimates are that every eight seconds, a child is born in this country. Every 47 seconds we gain an immigrant citizen. We should each take a few moments this month to give thanks for the comfort we enjoy in this country that makes such amazing growth possible. It is our privilege to be a place where people aspire to live, work, and raise families.
In light of this week's Gospel reading, it is also a time to reflect on what our obligations are as individuals blessed with the ability to feed and clothe ourselves. Many of us live in cities and towns which include neighbors who need help to make ends meet. Are we doing everything we can to offer support where it is necessary? What are our obligations to our own nation's poor and to the world's? Are we living up to these obligations?
These are daunting questions and we can feel sympathy for the young rich ruler in Mark's Gospel, but we should remember that each of us has the power to make the world a better place, and multiplied by 300 million, that should be a powerful change indeed.
40. Believers Together
Illustration
Life seems to be so constituted that it's our nature to need one another, to walk together with one another. This is seen in the way we band together as families and as friends, in the way we turn to one another in times of sorrow or joy, in the way we celebrate life's high moments and share the experiences which are meaningful to us.
And, if we are Christian, the fellowship of being together has dimensions of meaning never found anywhere else. Long ago, Jesus said, "Come to me." And, believing in him, people came. But this isn't all they did: as we are told in Acts 2:44, "They who believed were together ..." Not only did they come to him, they also got together with one another. They were mutually encouraged by the faith of one another and drew strength from the fellowship they shared.
Paul wrote to one of the churches: "I thank God whenever I think of you, and when I pray for you, my prayers are always joyful, because of your good fellowship in the gospel of Christ from the first day until now."
My dear friends, if we are at all sincere about this business of Christian living, there is no way to describe the values there are for us in being together - in fellowship, in shared experience, and in the adoration and worship of God.
41. Speaking for the Lord
Illustration
James Packer
Paul considered himself Christ's ambassador. What is an ambassador? He is an authorized representative of a sovereign. He speaks not in his own name but on behalf of the ruler whose deputy he is, and his whole duty and responsibility is to interpret that ruler's mind faithfully to those to whom he is sent.
Paul used this "ambassador" image twice both in connection with his evangelistic work. Pray for me, he wrote from prison, "that utterance may be given me in opening my mouth boldly to proclaim the mystery of the gospel, for which I am an ambassador in chains; that I may declare it boldly, as I ought to speak" (Eph. 6:18-20). He wrote also that God "gave us the ministry of reconciliation...So we are ambassadors for Christ, God making his appeal through us. We beseech you on behalf of Christ, be reconciled to God" (2 Corinthians 5:18-20).
Paul called himself an ambassador because he knew that when he proclaimed the gospel facts and promises and urged sinners to receive the reconciliation effected at Calvary, he was declaring Christ's message to the world. The figure of ambassadorship highlights the authority Paul had, as representing his Lord, as long as he remained faithful to the terms of his commission and said neither less nor more than he had been given to say.
42. Informing and Inviting
Illustration
J.I. Packer
Evangelism is communicating the gospel of Jesus Christ with the immediate intent of converting the hearer to faith in Christ, and with the ultimate intent of instructing the convert in the Word of God so that he can become a mature believer.
How then should evangelism be defined? The N.T. answer is very simple. According to the N.T., evangelism is just preaching the gospel, the evangel. Evangelizing, therefore is not simply a matter of teaching, and instructing, and imparting information to the mind. There is more to it than that. Evangelism includes the endeavor to elicit a response to the truth taught. It is communication with a view to conversion. It is a matter, not merely of informing, but also of inviting.
43. Three Strikes?
Illustration
Johnny Dean
What do you do when the Word of God you encounter at church on Sunday morning is not comforting but confusing and even down right confrontational?
The lectionary text from the Gospel of Matthew certainly fits in that category, doesn't it? Well, at first glance it may not be all that confusing. Forgiveness is good, but there are limits. If someone sins against you, confront that person face to face, one on one, and try to clear the air. If reconciliation doesn't result from the one on one encounter, confront the person again in the presence of witnesses. If the situation still remains unresolved, tell it to the church - sic the elders on them! That'll teach them a lesson! But if THAT doesn't work then let the one who sinned against you "be to you as a Gentile or a tax collector." That seems pretty straightforward, doesn't it? Sounds a lot like "three strikes and you're out," as a matter of fact. Most of us would agree with that approach. If somebody does you wrong, they either ought to make it right or pay the price. Or, as one philosopher put it, "We should always forgive our enemies, but only after they have been publicly executed."
But, you see, there IS one problem with this "three strikes and you're out" approach. And it's a major problem. The problem is that this method of dealing with someone who has wronged you is totally, completely, 100% AGAINST everything else Jesus teaches about forgiveness. In fact, if you read the entire 18th chapter of Matthew's gospel instead of reading just these few selected verses, it would appear that "three strikes and you're out" flies in the face of the teachings of Jesus recorded elsewhere in that chapter.
44. A Life of Despair
Illustration
Brett Blair
Two of his daughters and a son-in-law committed suicide. Three of his children died of malnutrition. Marx felt no obligation to earn a living, but instead lived by begging from Engels. He fathered an illegitimate child by his maidservant. He drank heavily. He was a paid informer of the Austrian police, spying on revolutionaries. Though Marx and his wife were poor, he kept investing in the stock market where he constantly lost. His wife left him twice, but returned. When she died, he didn't attend her funeral. His correspondence with Engels was full of obscenities. His favorite daughter, Eleanor, with her father's approval, married Edward Eveling, a man who advocated blasphemy and worshiped Satan. Daughter Eleanor committed suicide, poisoning herself with cyanide. Karl Marx died in despair.
Laura Marx, Karl's other daughter committed suicide together with her husband on25 November 1911. The coupledecided they had nothing left to give to the movement to which they had devoted their lives. Laura was 66 and her husband Paul Lafargue was 69. In their suicide letter, which Paul wrote,they explained why they committed suicide.It reads:
"Healthy in body and mind, I end my life before pitiless old age which has taken from me my pleasures and joys one after another; and which has been stripping me of my physical and mental powers, can paralyse my energy and break my will, making me a burden to myself and to others. For some years I had promised myself not to live beyond 70; and I fixed the exact year for my departure from life. I prepared the method for the execution of our resolution, it was a hypodermic of cyanide acid. I die with the supreme joy of knowing that at some future time, the cause to which I have been devoted for forty-five years will triumph. Long live Communism! Long Live the international socialism!"
Vladimir Lenin was one of the speakers at the funeral. He would later write the following to his wife: "If one cannot work for the Party any longer, one must be able to look truth in the face and die like the Lafargues."
Is it any wonder things ended this way for the Marx family?When you look at the tenets of Marxism, where else would you end up but in despair? Listen to these 10 basic principles:
- Abolition of private property
- A heavy progressiveincome tax.
- Abolition of all rights of inheritance.
- Confiscation of the property of all emigrants and rebels.
- State control of banks.
- State controlof communication and the press.
- State owned businesses.
- Equal liability of all to work, establishingindustrial armies
- Equal distribution of the populace over the country.
- Combination of education with industrial production.
What is there left to live for? This world would lead to the despair that caused the Marx family to take their lives. They stand in contrast to the Greatest Commandment to love God and love your neighbor and to the admonitionof the Beatitudes. Christianity frees and affirms; Marxism controls and demands. It's life or death isn't it? It's God's offer to the Israelites: I call heaven and earth to record this day against you, that I have set before you life and death, blessing and cursing: therefore choose life, that both thou and thy seed may live
45. SINGER
Illustration
Stephen Stewart
2 Chronicles 29:28 - "The whole assembly worshiped, and the singers sang, and the trumpeters sounded; all this continued until the burnt offering was finished."
Nehemiah 13:10 - "I also found out that the portions of the Levites had not been given to them; so that the Levites and the singers, who did the work, had fled each to his field."
Today there seems to be a resurgence of the popularity of the gospel tunes that used to be so well-known. In part, this is due to the "Jesus Movement" among so many young people, and, perhaps, it is also partly due to the state of extreme tension and unrest that prevails in our time. A local radio station in my listening area has recently given over three hours every weekday morning to gospel songs. And there has been a heartfelt chorus of approval for this move.
We have virtually made folk heroes of many of our singers today, and, regardless of the irregularities in the personal lives of many of them, a great many young people try to emulate them. Woodstock has moved into our language as a new noun. We pay fantastic amounts to all types of singers - from serious opera to sex and drug oriented performers.
So how far back can we go to find the origin of the singer as a professional? Way, way back! All of the ancient courts had professional singers attached - rather like press agents, since their function was to sing the praises of the king, as well as to entertain. There were also the traveling singers, who went from village to village, singing for handouts. This, of course, puts us in mind of the troubadors of the Middle Ages, who generally followed this same pattern. Unfortunately, however, the romantic picture that we generally have of these performers is far off base. Actually, they were wretched men of low morals, who couldn’t hold a job.
This was probably the same situation in ancient Israel before the establishment of the monarchy. It was only then that the singers achieved a degree of respectability. Of course, there had always been the indigenous balladeers, and we are grateful that there were these men, because they kept alive many of the legends and traditions of the people, that were later incorporated into the biblical narrative.
But it wasn’t until David (who was a great singer himself) that a class of singers arose. He is said to have used singers to entertain him at meals, an idea which was also carried on and expanded by Solomon, who probably appropriated some of the ideas of proper court entertainment from his Egyptian wife.
By the time that David began to crystallize plans for the building of the Great Temple, the idea of a class of professional liturgical singers had become a very real part of those plans. David is said to have organized 4,000 sacred singers for this purpose. Although this was all recorded by the Chronicler, who wrote very late within the Old Testament period, still we know that such professionals must have been around early, because the very nature of the worship service required them. In fact, if you will look through the Psalter, you will find that several of the Psalms are ascribed to such professionals.
Again referring to the Chronicler, we find that he has given David credit for instituting 24 classes of singers, and there were all assigned within the ranks of the Levites. It’s not my purpose here to go into the Hierarchical history of the Levites, but it is important to know that they were entrusted with the sacred music.
The Jews have always considered themselves to be a highly musical people, although, being Oriental in concept and origin, it would clash on our ears. It was often atonal, shrill, and harsh, alternately hauntingly beautiful and wildly raucous. But, then again, perhaps our ears have been assualted so badly by much of our modern music that we could have appreciated the ancient melodies. Of course, there was no harmony as we know it. That was a very late development.
But someone had to teach apprentice singers their craft, and again this was a job of the Levites, a job that we can compare to modern day music teachers. With one difference, however, that all music teachers will appreciate. The Levites were highly regarded, so much so, in fact, that they were tax exempt and lived free in special villages built around Jerusalem. Ah, I can hear you sigh, for the good old days. But now, at least we can escape. For the Levites, it was a matter of birth and a non-escapable obligation.
46. Who Was Paul?
Illustration
Michael P. Green
Some years ago, a clergyman of the Church of England attended an early-morning prayer meeting in behalf of Israel in an East London Jewish mission. Coming out on the street, he met another clergyman, who had attended a special service at St. Paul’s Cathedral on the anniversary of the conversion of the apostle Paul. After greeting each other, the second minister asked the other where he had been. He told him he had attended a Jewish mission meeting, upon which the second minister showed some surprise that his friend should believe in the possibility of Jews coming to faith. The minister who had attended the mission service asked the other where he had been and was told that he had attended a special service in honor of St. Paul at the cathedral bearing his name.
The clergyman who had attended the Jewish service asked, “Who exactly was Paul?”
The hesitating reply was, “I suppose you would consider him a believing Jew.”
“What music did they have at the service?”
“Why, Mendelssohn’s St. Paul, of course.”
“Who was Mendelssohn?”
“Why, a German.”
“No, he was not, he was a believing Jew,” was the reply.
The clergyman who did not seem to believe in the possibility of Jews coming to faith had been in a church dedicated to the memory of a Jewish believer, attending a service in honor of this Jew’s acceptance of the Messiah, had been listening to music composed by a Jewish believer, and was talking to a fellow clergyman—who was the Rev. Aaron Bernstein, a believing Jew.
47. The Wild Goose
Illustration
Mickey Anders
Celtic Christians chose, not the dove, but the wild goose as a symbol representing the Holy Spirit. It sounds strange to us, but it has a long tradition in Ireland.
While the Roman Church imagined the Holy Spirit in the form of a peaceful, graceful dove, the Ancient Celts understood the Holy Spirit to be like a wild goose. When you hear of the Spirit descending like a heavenly dove on you, you hear harps and strings softly playing and get a peaceful feeling. The image of the Holy Spirit as dove has become so familiar and domesticated an image we pay little attention.
The image of a wild goose descending upon you is a different matter altogether. A wild goose is one noisy, bothersome bird. I like this image of the Holy Spirit as a wild goose because it jars us out of our complacency. We need such an image to correct our overly safe and overly sweet image of the Spirit. One preacher friend asked, "How many times can you sing 'There's a Sweet, Sweet Spirit in This Place' without your blood sugar reaching diabetic levels?"
When the Spirit comes in the Bible, it never seems to be sweet or safe. God's Spirit called the prophets to speak to Israel in words that were bold and sometimes dangerous. Ezekiel saw a vision of God's Spirit blowing through a valley of dry bones and bringing them to life. John the Baptist dressed in camel's hair and eating wild locusts proclaimed, "I baptize you with water but he who comes after me will baptize you with the Holy Spirit and with fire." Paul gave this advice to young Timothy, "For this reason I remind you to rekindle the gift of God that is within you through the laying on of my hands; for God did not give us a spirit of cowardice, but rather a spirit of power and of love and of self-discipline" (2 Timothy 1:6-7).
Neither safe nor tame, the Spirit inspired Paul to proclaim, "There is no longer Jew or Greek, there is no longer slave or free, there is no longer male and female; for all of you are one in Christ Jesus. (Galatians 3:28).
It was this wild Goose that Jesus referred to when he preached his first sermon and quoted Isaiah, saying, "For the Spirit of the Lord is upon me for he has anointed me to preach good news to the poor, to proclaim release to the captives, and recovering of sight to the blind, to set at liberty those who are oppressed, to proclaim the year of God's favor" (Luke 4:18).
48. Disney and the Owl
Illustration
John R. Steward
Walter Elias was born in the city; now his parents had just moved to the country. Walter loved being on the farm because it meant that he spent more time in the land of make-believe.
On this particular day in the middle of summer, Walter Elias decided to go exploring. Living on a farm meant that his parents were very busy and did not seem to mind that he was off playing, using that wonderful imagination of his. He went quite a way from the farmhouse to an apple orchard. When he got close to the orchard, to his absolute amazement, he saw sitting on a branch of one of the apple trees an owl. He just stood there and stared at the owl. He thought about what his father had told him about owls. His father had said that owls always rested during the day because they hunted throughout the night. This owl was definitely asleep. He also thought that this owl might make a great pet. So, he made up his mind that he would try to capture the bird and take it to the farmhouse and turn it into a pet.
Walter Elias began his careful creep toward the owl. He was careful not to make too much noise by stepping on branches or leaves. The owl must have been in a deep sleep because he never heard Walter Elias walking toward it. Finally, Walter was standing right under the owl. He reached up and grabbed the owl by the legs. Immediately, the owl was awakened and came to life. Any thought that Walter might have had of capturing the bird was quickly forgotten. The owl began to fight for its freedom as Walter held on so very tightly, probably because of fear.
The events that followed are difficult to explain. The owl fought violently and was screaming for its life. In his panic, Walter Elias, still holding on to the owl, threw it to the ground and stomped it to death. After things calmed down, Walter looked at the now dead and bloody bird and began to cry. He ran back to the farm and obtained a shovel and went back to the orchard to bury the owl.
Now at night he would dream of that owl. Even as an adult he would never really get over what had happened on that lazy summer day so long ago. Deep down it affected him for the rest of his life. Walter never, ever killed anything again. That seven-year-old boy was transformed by that event and, coupled with his imagination, was later able to turn a personal tragedy into a triumph. Some say that he eventually set all the animals free. For that young boy grew up to become someone you have probably heard of: Walter Elias... Disney.
Radical transformation is what happened to the apostle Paul. He understood better than anyone how a leopard could change its spots. A transforming event happened to him as well on that road to Damascus, an event that would alter his life forever. As a result the world has never been the same either. Because of this one man, whose life was so dramatically changed by the Holy Spirit, the world was able to hear the good news of the gospel.
Adapted by Paul Harvey, More of Paul Harvey's the Rest of the Story (New York City: William Morrow & Company), p. 13.
49. Don't Be Too Cheap with the Seed
Illustration
Jack Exum
A farmer was entertaining some visitors to his farm. His spread included some twenty-five hundred acres. They asked him how he planted the seed. He reached in a bin and pulled out an ear of corn. Then he proceeded to pop out the kernels one by one as he walked along, demonstrating the planting process. The farmer then said, "Do you believe that?"
No, sir! was the reply.
Why not? the farmer asked.
"Well for one thing," one of the visitorssaid,"there's that big machine sitting over there."
"You're right," said the farmer. He then took them to thedistributor that was some thirty feet wide. "We take that double tandem truck, fill it with certified seed, back it up to the distributor, open the slots, and pour in the seed." He went on to say, "If you're ever going to be cheap, don't be cheap with the seed."
One bushel of seed invested yields thirty bushels of grain harvested in a good year. Thirty to one—not a bad return, if you are ready to believe and willing to invest.
God says, "Believe Me, trust Me, try My plan, prove My ways, and see the kind of harvest I will give." So Paul guarantees this principle of truth in the Scripture with the promise, "And God is able to make all grace abound to you, so that having all sufficiency in all things at all times, you may abound in every good work."
All grace, all ways, all sufficiency, all things! There are four promises in one breath. Knowing it is one thing, believing it is quite another.
50. Staying Open to God
Illustration
King Duncan
Dr. Carl Jung once said something that ought to cause every believer to reflect very carefully. What he said was this: "One of the main functions of formalized religion is to protect people against a direct experience of God." That hurts but it can happen. Theological and doctrinal pride can be buffers against a real experience of Christ's grace.
F. Kefa Sempangi, a Ugandan pastor who barely escaped death under Idi Amin's persecution in the early 1970s, beautifully captures this important truth in his wonderful book A Distant Grief. He writes about a hurtful change that came over him shortly after coming to the United States and enrolling in an evangelical seminary:
"In Uganda, [my wife] and I read the Bible for hope and life," he says. "We read to hear God's promises, to hear His commands and obey them. There had been no time for argument and no time for religious discrepancies or doubts.
"Now, in the security of a new life and with the reality of death fading from mind, I found myself reading Scripture to analyze texts and speculate about meaning. I came to enjoy abstract theological discussions with my fellow students, and, while these discussions were intellectually refreshing, it wasn't long before our fellowship revolved around ideas rather than the work of God in our lives. It was not the blood of Jesus Christ that gave us unity but our agreement on doctrinal issues. We came together not for confession and forgiveness but for debate."
This change in attitude towards God had its greatest impact in Kefa's prayer life: "God Himself had become a distant figure," he writes. "He had become a subject of debate, an abstract category. I no longer prayed to Him as a living Father but as an impersonal being who did not mind my inattention and unbelief."
When he realized how far he had drifted from God due to theological speculations, Kefa repented of his attitudes. Immediately his prayer life was renewed. Thereafter, he began consciously to submit himself moment by moment to the living God. People are people. Pride is pride. But fortunately, God is still God.
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